1. WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT: THE UNEASY RELATION BETWEEN THEORY AND GLOBAL EDUCATION POLICY Nelly P. Stromquist University of Maryland, USA

2. Critical importance on donor agencies in supporting gender issues in education Through financial support Through technical assistance However, support is not based on gender theory but on rationales for advancing women’s education

3. Three prevailing rationales Human capital: education is needed to incorporate women into existing economy and society Human rights: education is a basic right for all human beings Human capabilities: multiple preconditions are necessary to attain a worthy life, including education

4. Core elements of gender theory Theory considers cause/effect relations, dynamics, interactions, outcomes. Gender barriers: micro-level constraints linked to sexual division of labor; macro/micro interaction; concatenated role of economic, political, knowledge, and psychological factors. Critical importance of the subordinate as agent of own change (empowerment). Action indispensable at both individual and collective levels. Complementary role of formal and non-formal education.

5. Conditions for the enactment of a gender theory of social change Be attentive to questions linked to the gendered division of labor and try to contest it Be aware that there are fundamental material contributions women make through unremunerated labor Argue for the indispensable participation of women as protagonists of their own emancipation Continually explore ways of using technology and other forms of infrastructure to reduce domestic and care work Recognize that ideology—patriarchy in the case of gender asymmetries—is supported by men’s needs to benefit from women’s material contribution

6. Women’s empowerment as a means and end Women to empower themselves through knowledge that makes them aware of gender subordination and oppression This cognitive empowerment must be supported by economic, political, and psychological empowerment Empowerment cannot be solely an individual process and needs supportive organizations Women-led NGOs are the best suited organizations to mobilize and coordinate change in the social relations of gender

7. The framing of gender in global education policies Strong adherence to school access as the main and almost exclusive strategy Persistence in working at primary school level, although increasing recognition of the importance of secondary school Focus on school access by girls de facto equates gender with sex Lack of attention to a transformative curriculum and teacher-training programs sensitive to gender Lack of attention to adult/non-formal education

8. The framing of gender in education policies Discursive recognition of “empowerment” by most international development agencies. UNESCO (2015): Continues parity concern World Bank (2006): Empowerment only as economic empowerment UNDP (2014): Recognizes economic and political empowerment and role of civil society organizations. Does not integrate education USAID (2012): Sees empowerment as an end point. Process to get there unspecified

9. Recent global policy documents The SDGs have objectives dealing with education and gender. Goal 4 continues focus on formal school access but signals attention to lifelong learning. Goals 5 aims to “empower all women and girls” and commits to stronger implementation of Cairo and Beijing agreements. The text reflects a comprehensive understanding of gender theory. SDGs would indeed be transformative. The Third International Conference on Financing for Development (2015) uses “empowerment” only in association with participation in the labor force; concept is not defined.

10. Why the reluctance to incorporate gender theory? Organizational inertia. Easier to focus on a single problem definition as it simplifies work A homogenized view of women in the Third World: women as poor and needing basic education Avoidance of risk-taking. Applying gender theory calls for identification of women-led NGOs as key actors—a situation that could create conflict with aid-recipient states

11. What is to be done in education? Work on a curriculum sensitive to gender, which considers patriarchal ideology, negative practices such as domestic violence, sexual harassment, rape, and existing/potential laws regarding rights to property, credit, marriage, divorce. Provide training that is gender sensitive to teachers, administrators, and education policy-makers. Recognize the twin importance of formal and adult/non-formal education. All of the above—while crucial to a transformative education—are still pushed aside by a predominant focus on school access.