1. Castano's Mid-term Review Mid-term is Wednesday, January 28 at 7:30am! YOU MUST SHOW UP!!!!

2. Scientific Method Oh, please have extra delicious candy ready! Observe, problem, hypothesis, experiment, data, conclusion, repeat... A controlled experiment has two groups which are identical in all ways (everything is “controlled”) but one. The control group is used for comparison and receives no “experimental” variable. The experimental group receives the “experimental” variable.

3. Experiments Controlled experiments use two groups (the larger, the better). All variables remain the same except for one: the Manipulated (Independent) Variable. This is what is changed (manipulated) in the experiment. The other “variable” is the Dependent Variable. This is what is measured in the experiment. Experiments must be repeated, with the same results received, in order for it to be valid.

4. Data Data is the results of the experiment. It is carefully collected and organized in charts. The data is displayed in graphs to make it easier to see trends, compare different data and determine a conclusion based on these results.

5. STRANGER-C S Synthesis (to build/create something more complex) T Transport (movement of materials into/out of and around an organism) R Respiration (cellular respiration – the process of making ATP energy) A Adapt/Respond (homeostasis – an organism's ability to adapt and respond to changes in the environment) (*STEADY STATE*) N Nutrition (obtaining the nutrients needed to survive)

6. STRANGER-C Cont'd... G Growth/Genetics (growth means to increase in size and/or number – but that could not occur without genes!) E Excretion (removal of cellular waste) R Reproduction (Sexual and Asexual) C Cells

7. Microscopes The invention of the microscope lead to the discovery of cells Compound → Cells & Cell Theory → Electron Microscope Compound Microscope uses two lenses Ocular (eyepiece) & Objective Multiply power of both lenses to get Total Magnification Ocular (10x) x Objective (4x, 10x, 40x) = Total Field of View (FOV) is what you “see” when looking through the eyepiece Lower power = large field of view, less detail High power = small field of view, more detail

8. Cells & Cell Theory Cells are the basic unit of function and life. Cells are living organisms The Cell Theory States: Cells are the basic (smallest) unit of function that is living. All living things are made up of one or more cells. Cells come from pre-existing cells.

9. Cells Prokaryote → Single Cellular / No Organelles Bacteria Eukaryote → Single or Multicellular / Have organelles and a Nucleus Plants & Animals YOU are a EUKARYOTE! Cells contain membrane bound organelles which have specific jobs inside the cell Organelles are made up of macromolecules

10. Organelles Each have a specific job Plant and Animal Cells contain the following: Nucleus → Houses Chromosomes (DNA-genetic information) and controls cellular activities Plasma Membrane → Controls (regulates) what enters and leaves the cell (but, has no control over water and gases) Cytoplasm → “Gel” substance which protects organelles and moves material around the cell  Cytoplasmic Streaming Ribosomes → Make Proteins from Amino Acids

11. Mitochondria → Makes energy (ATP) from Glucose and Oxygen (ALL Organisms Need ATP!) Vacuole → Storage container (Stores Water, Waste) ALL CELLS have cytoplasm and a cell membrane Plant cells have: Chloroplast → Site of Photosynthesis (Glucose production), filled with green pigment Chlorophyll Cell Wall → Non-living, made of Cellulose, surrounds and protects cell Animal cells have: Centrioles → Send out spindles to help with cell division Lysosomes → Vesicle to digest & destroy waste

12. Diffusion & Osmosis Rules of Diffusion: Molecules move across a membrane from high concentration to low concentration No Energy Required! Membrane must be permeable Molecules must be able to fit through the membrane Cell membrane has NO control over the diffusion of water, gases, glucose Osmosis is the diffusion of water

13. The Big Four Organic Macromolecules (C,H,O,N & P) Carbohydrates Sugars & Starches C-H 2 O formula 1C=2H=1O Geometric Shapes! Lipids Fats & Oils CHO formula Glycerol + Fatty Acids Proteins Amino Acids Enzymes!!!!!! Nucleic Acids DNA Nucleotides A,T,C,G RNA Nucleotides A,U,C,G

14. DNA Double stranded hereditary information (genetic material) which make up Chromosomes Coiled into a double helix Chromosomes are made up of genes which are made up of nucleotides Repeating Nucleotides make up Nucleic Acids 4 Different Nitrogen Bases (A,T,C,G) Adenine-Thymine Cytosine-Guanine THYMINE is only in DNA Remains in Nucleus

15. RNA Single stranded genetic material which is a copy of DNA Nucleotides → Nucleic Acids 4 Different Nitrogen Bases (A,U,C,G) Adenine-Uracil Cytosine-Guanine NO THYMINE – HAS URACIL! Leaves nucleus to bring message to the Ribosome where protein is made

16. Chemical Reactions Dehydration Synthesis Remove water to build a bond and make something more complex A molecule of water (H2O) is always formed by this reaction Hydrolysis Add water to break down (destroy) bonds and digest a complex molecule into smaller, simpler molecules A molecule of water (H2O) is always used in this reaction

17. Enzymes & Chemical Reactions ALL Chemical Reactions are controlled by ENZYMES! When you see an arrow in a formula, there are enzymes present! Enzymes are sometimes known as Biological Catalysts (a catalyst gets “something” started) Enzymes are very specific One enzyme for each different reaction Each has a different shape, due to the sequence of amino acids Enzymes are never changed or used up in a reaction → (Enzymes SYNTHESIZE and HYDROLIZE!)

18. Enzymes Enzymes (and all proteins) can lose their shape due to pH or temperature If the enzyme loses it's natural shape it will not work Denature (“de”stroy “natur”al shape) Enzymes work best at “optimal” pH and temperature The high-peak of the graph Low parts of graph is where enzyme is denatured

19. Other Cell Processes Photosynthesis CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2 Plants, green algae and some bacteria Known as Autotrophs or Producers because they produce their own food Animals, Fungus (Mushrooms) and Bacteria are Heterotrophs/Consumers because they need to consume (eat) food GLUCOSE is synthesized in the Chloroplast Solar energy is captured and inorganic water and carbon dioxide are converted into organic Glucose Radiant energy is changed to chemical energy chemical energy is stored in the bonds of Glucose

20. Other Cell Processes Cell Respiration ALL ORGANISMS (including plants!) perform Cell Respiration Produces ATP (Adenosine-triphosphate) at the Mitochondria Energy stored in Glucose is converted into a form which the cells can use for biological activities (ATP) C6H12O6 + O2 → ATP + CO2 + H2O Aerobic uses oxygen and makes 36 ATPs Anaerobic means no oxygen and is not efficient (Yeast makes Alcohol --- Muscle Cells make Lactic Acid)

21. Inorganic/Organic * Organic Molecules have Carbon “C” AND Hydrogen “H” TOGETHER! * Water is inorganic because it has no carbon * Carbon Dioxide is inorganic because it has no hydrogen * Glucose is ORGANIC because it has BOTH carbon AND hydrogen!

22. Cell Division (Asexual Reproduction) aka Mitosis One parent cell produces two identical daughter cells Occurs with ALL cells except for sex cells DNA is duplicated (replicated) in the parent cell and then the cell splits in two Both cells have identical genetic information and have the same number of chromosomes as the original cell at the end of division

23. YOU NEED TO KNOW THESE... HOMEOSTASIS – Maintain a steady internal balance METABOLISM – The total amount of chemical reaction that occur in an organism SYNTHESIS – To build/create something complex CATALYST – Enzymes! Control Chemical Reactions AUTOTROPH – Produces own food (glucose) HETEROTROPH – Has to consume food (glucose)

24. Think.... If you see RIBOSOME, think PROTEINS/AMINO ACIDS If you see MITOCHONDRIA, think CELL RESPIRATION/ATP/ENERGY If you see NUCLEUS, think CHROMOSOME/DNA/GENETIC INFO If you see HEREDITARY, think DNA/CHROMOSOMES/GENES/GENETICS If you see METABOLISM, think CHEMICAL REACTIONS If you see CATALYST, think ENZYME!!!!!