1. Chapter One: The Science of Psychology

2. Ways to Acquire Knowledge Tenacity Tenacity Refers to the continued presentation of a particular bit of information. When we hear a statement repeated a sufficient number of times, we have a tendency to accept it as being true. Refers to the continued presentation of a particular bit of information. When we hear a statement repeated a sufficient number of times, we have a tendency to accept it as being true.

3. Ways to Acquire Knowledge Authority Authority Acceptance of knowledge from an authority; taking someone’s word for it; also depends on the credibility of the person presenting the information. Acceptance of knowledge from an authority; taking someone’s word for it; also depends on the credibility of the person presenting the information.

4. Psychological Detective What problems can you identify with acquiring knowledge through tenacity and authority? What problems can you identify with acquiring knowledge through tenacity and authority? You have no way of knowing if the knowledge you have gained is true. You have no way of knowing if the knowledge you have gained is true. The inability or unwillingness of tenacity and authority to change in the face of contradictory evidence. The inability or unwillingness of tenacity and authority to change in the face of contradictory evidence.

5. Ways to Acquire Knowledge Experience Experience Experiencing something firsthand or directly. Experiencing something firsthand or directly. Is all experience perfectly accurate? Is all experience perfectly accurate?

6. Ways to Acquire Knowledge Reason and Logic Reason and Logic Based on the premise that we can apply reason and logic to a situation in order to gain knowledge and understanding. This process is frequently called a logical syllogism. Based on the premise that we can apply reason and logic to a situation in order to gain knowledge and understanding. This process is frequently called a logical syllogism. An example of a logical syllogism is the assumption that “beautiful people are good.” An example of a logical syllogism is the assumption that “beautiful people are good.”

7. Ways to Acquire Knowledge Science Science The key elements of the scientific approach are: The key elements of the scientific approach are: Objective measurements of the phenomenon under consideration. Objective measurements of the phenomenon under consideration. The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by other individuals. The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by other individuals. Self-correction of errors and faulty reasoning. Self-correction of errors and faulty reasoning. Exercising control to rule out the influence of unwanted factors. Exercising control to rule out the influence of unwanted factors.

8. Ways to Acquire Knowledge (recap) Tenacity Tenacity Authority Authority Experience Experience Reason and Logic Reason and Logic Science Science

9. Psychological Detective Review the methods for acquiring knowledge that we presented. How does the scientific method avoid the problems associated with tenacity, authority, experience, and reason and logic? Review the methods for acquiring knowledge that we presented. How does the scientific method avoid the problems associated with tenacity, authority, experience, and reason and logic?

10. Components of the Scientific Method Objectivity Objectivity A good researcher strives to be as objective as possible. A good researcher strives to be as objective as possible. Psychologists select research participants in such a manner as to avoid biasing factors (such as age or sex). Psychologists select research participants in such a manner as to avoid biasing factors (such as age or sex). Researchers frequently make their measurements with instruments in order to be as objective as possible. We describe such measurements as being empirical because they are based on objectively quantifiable observations. Researchers frequently make their measurements with instruments in order to be as objective as possible. We describe such measurements as being empirical because they are based on objectively quantifiable observations.

11. Components of the Scientific Method Confirmation of Findings Confirmation of Findings Because the procedures and measurements are objective, we should be able to repeat them and confirm the original results. Confirmation of findings is important for establishing the validity of research. Because the procedures and measurements are objective, we should be able to repeat them and confirm the original results. Confirmation of findings is important for establishing the validity of research. Psychologists use the term replication to refer to a research study that is conducted in exactly the same manner as a previous study. A replication with extension generates new information at the same time it confirms previous findings. Psychologists use the term replication to refer to a research study that is conducted in exactly the same manner as a previous study. A replication with extension generates new information at the same time it confirms previous findings.

12. Components of the Scientific Method Self-correction Self-correction Errors and faulty reasoning that become apparent should lead to a change in the conclusions we reach. Errors and faulty reasoning that become apparent should lead to a change in the conclusions we reach. If experimental evidence fails to support the predicted relations between our independent and dependent variables, we change our view about how nature operates. If experimental evidence fails to support the predicted relations between our independent and dependent variables, we change our view about how nature operates.

13. Components of the Scientific Method Control Control Direct manipulation of factors of major interest. Direct manipulation of factors of major interest. An experiment is an implementation of control by manipulating the factor(s) that is the central focus of research. An experiment is an implementation of control by manipulating the factor(s) that is the central focus of research. Control of unwanted factors Control of unwanted factors Potentially influential and undesirable factors (other than the factor of major interest) are not allowed to change. Potentially influential and undesirable factors (other than the factor of major interest) are not allowed to change.

14. Components of the Scientific Method (recap) Objectivity Objectivity Confirmation of findings Confirmation of findings Self-correction Self-correction Control Control

15. The Psychological Experiment Experiment Experiment An attempt to determine the cause-and-effect relations that exist in nature. An attempt to determine the cause-and-effect relations that exist in nature. Researchers are interested in determining those factors that result in or cause predictable events. Researchers are interested in determining those factors that result in or cause predictable events.

16. The Psychological Experiment In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of three related factors: In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of three related factors: The independent variable The independent variable The dependent variable The dependent variable Extraneous variables Extraneous variables

17. The Psychological Experiment Independent Variable (IV) Independent Variable (IV) The factor that is the major focus of the research and that the researcher directly manipulates. The factor that is the major focus of the research and that the researcher directly manipulates. Manipulation of the IV corresponds to one use of the term control. Manipulation of the IV corresponds to one use of the term control.

18. The Psychological Experiment The IV is: The IV is: Independent Independent Can be directly manipulated by the investigator. Can be directly manipulated by the investigator. Variable Variable Is able to assume two or more values (levels). Is able to assume two or more values (levels). The causal part of the relation we seek to establish. The causal part of the relation we seek to establish.

19. The Psychological Experiment Dependent Variable (DV) Dependent Variable (DV) Consists of the the recorded information or results of the experiment. Consists of the the recorded information or results of the experiment. Is the effect half of the cause-and-effect relation we are examining. Is the effect half of the cause-and-effect relation we are examining. Changes in DV scores will depend on the manipulation of the IV. Changes in DV scores will depend on the manipulation of the IV.

20. The Psychological Experiment Extraneous Variables Extraneous Variables Are there factors, other than the independent variable, that can influence the dependent variable and change the results of your experiment? Are there factors, other than the independent variable, that can influence the dependent variable and change the results of your experiment? When an extraneous variable is present, we have no way of knowing whether the extraneous variable or the IV caused the effect we observe. When an extraneous variable is present, we have no way of knowing whether the extraneous variable or the IV caused the effect we observe. Attention to extraneous variables represents another use of the term control. Attention to extraneous variables represents another use of the term control.

21. The Psychological Experiment Establishing Cause-and-Effect Relations Establishing Cause-and-Effect Relations Only when we manipulate an independent variable and control potential extraneous variables are we able to infer a cause-and-effect relation. Only when we manipulate an independent variable and control potential extraneous variables are we able to infer a cause-and-effect relation.

22. The Psychological Experiment (recap) Independent variable Independent variable Dependent variable Dependent variable Extraneous variables Extraneous variables Establishing cause-and-effect relations Establishing cause-and-effect relations

23. The Research Process Finding a Problem Finding a Problem Each research project begins as a problem or a question for which we are seeking an answer. Each research project begins as a problem or a question for which we are seeking an answer.

24. The Research Process Reviewing the Literature Reviewing the Literature Finding out what research studies already exist in an area. Finding out what research studies already exist in an area.

25. The Research Process Theoretical Considerations Theoretical Considerations A theory is a formal statement of the relation among the relevant variables in a particular research area. All good theories: A theory is a formal statement of the relation among the relevant variables in a particular research area. All good theories: Attempt to organize a given body of scientific data. Attempt to organize a given body of scientific data. Point the way to new research. Point the way to new research.

26. The Research Process The Hypothesis Attempts to state specific IV-DV relations within a selected portion of a larger, more comprehensive research area or theory. Attempts to state specific IV-DV relations within a selected portion of a larger, more comprehensive research area or theory. The research or experimental hypothesis is the predicted outcome of a research project. The research or experimental hypothesis is the predicted outcome of a research project. The research hypothesis states a testable prediction about the relations between the independent and dependent variables in your experiment. The research hypothesis states a testable prediction about the relations between the independent and dependent variables in your experiment.

27. The Research Process Research Design Research Design A general plan for conducting your research. A general plan for conducting your research. Your research design specifies: Your research design specifies: How you will select your participants and assign them to groups. How you will select your participants and assign them to groups. The types of extraneous variable control(s) you will use. The types of extraneous variable control(s) you will use. How you will gather your data. How you will gather your data.

28. The Research Process Conducting the Experiment Conducting the Experiment The next step is to actually conduct the experiment (gather the data). The next step is to actually conduct the experiment (gather the data).

29. The Research Process Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions The Research Process Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions Once the data has been gathered, it has to be analyzed. Once the data has been gathered, it has to be analyzed. Based on the results of the data analysis, we will decide whether manipulating the IV had a significant effect on the DV. Based on the results of the data analysis, we will decide whether manipulating the IV had a significant effect on the DV. If manipulation of the IV had a statistically significant effect on the DV, and if the experiment was well-designed, we can infer that the IV manipulation was the cause of the DV effect we recorded. If manipulation of the IV had a statistically significant effect on the DV, and if the experiment was well-designed, we can infer that the IV manipulation was the cause of the DV effect we recorded.

30. The Research Process Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and theory. Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and theory. Was our experimental hypothesis supported? Was our experimental hypothesis supported? Do our results agree with past research? Do our results agree with past research? How do our results fit into the current theoretical structure in this research area? How do our results fit into the current theoretical structure in this research area? If our results do not fit perfectly, what changes need to be made in our interpretation or existing theory to accommodate them? If our results do not fit perfectly, what changes need to be made in our interpretation or existing theory to accommodate them? Does lack of support for our hypothesis disconfirm the theory? Does lack of support for our hypothesis disconfirm the theory?

31. The Research Process Preparing the Research Report A research report is the way we share our results with the scientific community. A research report is the way we share our results with the scientific community. A research report is prepared according to the format prescribed by the American Psychological Association (APA). A research report is prepared according to the format prescribed by the American Psychological Association (APA). APA format allows researchers to know exactly what to include in their papers and readers to know exactly where to look for specific experimental details, procedures, and results. APA format allows researchers to know exactly what to include in their papers and readers to know exactly where to look for specific experimental details, procedures, and results.

32. The Research Process Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication The two most popular ways to share results are: The two most popular ways to share results are: Present an oral paper or a poster at a psychological convention, and/or Present an oral paper or a poster at a psychological convention, and/or Publish an article in a professional journal. Publish an article in a professional journal.

33. The Research Process Finding a New Problem Finding a New Problem The more deeply you immerse yourself in a research area, the more questions and problems you will find to research. The more deeply you immerse yourself in a research area, the more questions and problems you will find to research.

34. Why is the Research Methods Course Important? It Assists You in Other Classes It Assists You in Other Classes The more completely you understand research methodology, the better you will be able to master the material in your other classes. The more completely you understand research methodology, the better you will be able to master the material in your other classes. Conducting an Original Research Project Conducting an Original Research Project The research methods course often includes or is followed by conducting an original project. This provides an excellent opportunity to present or publish your findings. The research methods course often includes or is followed by conducting an original project. This provides an excellent opportunity to present or publish your findings. Conducting a Research Project After Graduation Conducting a Research Project After Graduation You might have to conduct research as a condition of future employment (even if you’re not particularly interested in research at this point in time). You might have to conduct research as a condition of future employment (even if you’re not particularly interested in research at this point in time).

35. Why is the Research Methods Course Important? Getting into Graduate School Getting into Graduate School Psychology graduate admissions committees view a course in research methods or experimental psychology very positively. Psychology graduate admissions committees view a course in research methods or experimental psychology very positively. Having presented or published a report is also rated very highly by graduate school admissions committees. Having presented or published a report is also rated very highly by graduate school admissions committees. Becoming a Knowledgeable Consumer of Research Becoming a Knowledgeable Consumer of Research If you understand the research on which a variety of claims are based, then you are in a position to make a more educated decision concerning such knowledge claims. If you understand the research on which a variety of claims are based, then you are in a position to make a more educated decision concerning such knowledge claims.