1. Memory and Cognition PSY 324 Topic 7: Everyday Memory & Memory Errors Dr. Ellen Campana Arizona State University

2. Intro to Everyday Memory So far we’ve talked about a lot of different types of long-termmemory, but many of the studies have been about memory for lists of words So far we’ve talked about a lot of different types of long-termmemory, but many of the studies have been about memory for lists of words In this chapter we’ll be talking more about how long-term memory functions in everyday life In this chapter we’ll be talking more about how long-term memory functions in everyday life Autobiographical memory Autobiographical memory Flashbulb memory Flashbulb memory Memory as a constructive process Memory as a constructive process Source memory Source memory

3. Autobiographical Memory

4. Autobiographical memory = recollection of events that belong to a person’s past Autobiographical memory = recollection of events that belong to a person’s past Mostly episodic memory Mostly episodic memory Field perspective – as if experiencing the event Field perspective – as if experiencing the event Common for recent events Common for recent events Observer perspective – as if seeing the event (seeing self) Observer perspective – as if seeing the event (seeing self) Common for more remote memories Common for more remote memories Also includes semantic memories related to the self Also includes semantic memories related to the self Where you were born, what your first word was, etc. Where you were born, what your first word was, etc. Much more complex than memory of word lists! Much more complex than memory of word lists!

5. Autobiographical Memory Autobiographical memory is multidimensional Autobiographical memory is multidimensional Spatial, emotional, sensory, etc. Spatial, emotional, sensory, etc. Visual information plays a large role Visual information plays a large role Greenberg & Rubin (2003) – neurophysiological evidence (visual cortex damage) Greenberg & Rubin (2003) – neurophysiological evidence (visual cortex damage) Can’t recognize objects => Autobiographical memory impaired, even non-visual aspects Can’t recognize objects => Autobiographical memory impaired, even non-visual aspects Autobiographical memory is much richer than laboratory memory Autobiographical memory is much richer than laboratory memory Cabeza & Coworkers (2004) – brain imaging study Cabeza & Coworkers (2004) – brain imaging study

6. Richness of Autobiographical Mem. Cabeza & Coworkers (2004) Cabeza & Coworkers (2004) Gave participants cameras to take pics of 40 specific campus locations Gave participants cameras to take pics of 40 specific campus locations A-photos: photos individuals took themselves A-photos: photos individuals took themselves L-photos: lab photos (taken by another student) L-photos: lab photos (taken by another student)

7. Richness of Autobiographical Mem. Cabeza & Coworkers (2004) Cabeza & Coworkers (2004) Gave participants cameras to take pics of 40 specific campus locations Gave participants cameras to take pics of 40 specific campus locations A-photos: photos individuals took themselves A-photos: photos individuals took themselves L-photos: lab photos (taken by another student) L-photos: lab photos (taken by another student) Phase 1: exposed to A-photos & L-photos Phase 1: exposed to A-photos & L-photos Not in the scanner Not in the scanner Phase 2: shown A-photos & L-photos (some new, some from before)… had to say which was which Phase 2: shown A-photos & L-photos (some new, some from before)… had to say which was which This part was in the scanner This part was in the scanner

8. Richness of Autobiographical Mem. Cabeza & Coworkers (2004): Findings Cabeza & Coworkers (2004): Findings A-photos & L-photos activated many of the same structures A-photos & L-photos activated many of the same structures Medial Temporal Lobe: episodic memory Medial Temporal Lobe: episodic memory Parietal Cortex: scene processing Parietal Cortex: scene processing A-photos activated many additional areas A-photos activated many additional areas Regions that process memory for self Regions that process memory for self Regions that process memory for visual space Regions that process memory for visual space Regions associated with experience of mental time travel Regions associated with experience of mental time travel Hippocampus Hippocampus

9. Richness of Autobiographical Mem. Why talk about that imaging study? Why talk about that imaging study? Demonstrates that autobiographical memory is richer than lab memory Demonstrates that autobiographical memory is richer than lab memory Even though participants were viewing the same location for A-photos and L-photos, A-photos activated more areas than L-photos. Even though participants were viewing the same location for A-photos and L-photos, A-photos activated more areas than L-photos. Activation thought to be related to memories of the experience of taking the picture Activation thought to be related to memories of the experience of taking the picture If even simple, relatively unimportant memories have rich representations, what makes some “stand out” in our minds more than others? If even simple, relatively unimportant memories have rich representations, what makes some “stand out” in our minds more than others?

10. Memory Over the Lifespan

11. Memory over the Lifespan What memories tend to “stand out”? What memories tend to “stand out”? Personal milestones Personal milestones Highly emotional events Highly emotional events Events that become big parts of a person’s life Events that become big parts of a person’s life Major transition points Major transition points Juniors & seniors recalled more events from Sept of freshman year than any other month Juniors & seniors recalled more events from Sept of freshman year than any other month Alumni recalled both September of freshman year and end of senior year events more than other times Alumni recalled both September of freshman year and end of senior year events more than other times

12. Memory over the Lifespan Memory is different for different times in life Memory is different for different times in life Memory between ages 10 and 30 “stands out” Memory between ages 10 and 30 “stands out” This effect is called the reminiscence bump This effect is called the reminiscence bump See figure 8.3 to see what this looks like on the graph See figure 8.3 to see what this looks like on the graph

13. Memory over the Lifetime Why the reminiscence bump? Why the reminiscence bump? Life-narrative hypothesis Life-narrative hypothesis People tend to assume their life identities between 10-30 People tend to assume their life identities between 10-30 Many important “firsts” between 10 and 30 Many important “firsts” between 10 and 30 Cognitive hypothesis Cognitive hypothesis Encoding is better for periods of rapid change, followed by stability (10-30=change, stability after that) Encoding is better for periods of rapid change, followed by stability (10-30=change, stability after that) Evidence: bump is shifted for late vs. early immigrants Evidence: bump is shifted for late vs. early immigrants

14. Memory over the Lifetime Why the reminiscence bump? Why the reminiscence bump? Life-narrative hypothesis Life-narrative hypothesis People tend to assume their life identities between 10-30 People tend to assume their life identities between 10-30 Many important “firsts” between 10 and 30 Many important “firsts” between 10 and 30 Cognitive hypothesis Cognitive hypothesis Encoding is better for periods of rapid change, followed by stability (10-30=change, stability after that) Encoding is better for periods of rapid change, followed by stability (10-30=change, stability after that) Evidence: bump is shifted for late vs. early immigrants Evidence: bump is shifted for late vs. early immigrants Cultural script hypothesis Cultural script hypothesis Cultural expectations shape recall (typical events, times) Cultural expectations shape recall (typical events, times)

15. Memories Across the Lifespan All three hypotheses probably contribute to the occurrence of the reminisence bump All three hypotheses probably contribute to the occurrence of the reminisence bump These also interact with the other factors that make certain memories “stand out” These also interact with the other factors that make certain memories “stand out” Milestones, transitions, events that are part of our major “life story” Milestones, transitions, events that are part of our major “life story” Highly emotional events Highly emotional events Next: flashbulb memories (emotional events) Next: flashbulb memories (emotional events)

16. Flashbulb Memory Flashbulb memories are episodic memories about the context in which you found out about highly emotional events Flashbulb memories are episodic memories about the context in which you found out about highly emotional events Often culturally-relevant events (JFK, challenger, 911) Often culturally-relevant events (JFK, challenger, 911) Remembered for a long time, in vivid detail Remembered for a long time, in vivid detail Why called “flashbulb”? Brown and Kulik used this analogy in a paper about JFK’s assassination Why called “flashbulb”? Brown and Kulik used this analogy in a paper about JFK’s assassination Their paper looked at memory after many years… Their paper looked at memory after many years… … but were these memories accurate? … but were these memories accurate?

17. Flashbulb Memory To test accuracy of flashbulb memories, researchers use a method called repeated recall To test accuracy of flashbulb memories, researchers use a method called repeated recall Right after an event, people write about it (baseline) Right after an event, people write about it (baseline) Later they are asked to write about it again Later they are asked to write about it again Researchers compare writings for each person Researchers compare writings for each person Neisser & Harsch (1992) – repeated recall for the challenger explosion Neisser & Harsch (1992) – repeated recall for the challenger explosion

18. Neisser & Harsch (1992) Quote from day after event: I was in my religion class and some people walked in and started talking about [it]. I didn’t know any details except that it had exploded and the schoolteacher’s students had all been watching, which I thought was so sad. Then after class I went to my room and watched the TV program talking about it, and I got all the details from that.

19. Neisser & Harsch (1992) Same person, quote from 2 ½ years later: When I first heard about the explosion I was sitting in my freshman dorm room with my roommate, and we were watching TV. It came on a news flash, and we were both totally shocked. I was really upset, and I went upstairs to talk to a friend of mine, and then I called my parents.

20. Schmolke and coworkers (2000) O.J. Simpson trial O.J. Simpson trial Response at 3 days: I was in the commuter lounge at college and saw it on TV. As 10:00 approached, more and more people came into the room… Response at 3 days: I was in the commuter lounge at college and saw it on TV. As 10:00 approached, more and more people came into the room… Response at 32 months (same person): I first heard it while I was watching TV at home in my living room. My sister and father were with me… Response at 32 months (same person): I first heard it while I was watching TV at home in my living room. My sister and father were with me… Conclusion: “it seems unlikely that so-called flashbulb memories differ from ordinary episodic memories in any fundamental way.” Conclusion: “it seems unlikely that so-called flashbulb memories differ from ordinary episodic memories in any fundamental way.”

21. Are Flashbulb Memories Special? Talarico and Rubin (2003) – 911 event Talarico and Rubin (2003) – 911 event Some evidence that they are not special Some evidence that they are not special Accuracy and number of details decreased similarly for flashbulb and everyday episodic memories Accuracy and number of details decreased similarly for flashbulb and everyday episodic memories Some evidence that they are special Some evidence that they are special Participants’ beliefs that memories were accurate stayed high for flashbulb, but dropped for everyday episodic memories Participants’ beliefs that memories were accurate stayed high for flashbulb, but dropped for everyday episodic memories Participants’ ratings of vividness and how well they could “relive” events stayed high for flashbulb, but dropped for everyday episodic memories Participants’ ratings of vividness and how well they could “relive” events stayed high for flashbulb, but dropped for everyday episodic memories

22. Are Flashbulb Memories Special? Davidson and Coworkers (2006) – also 911 Davidson and Coworkers (2006) – also 911 Found flashbulb memories more resistant to fading Found flashbulb memories more resistant to fading congruence scores high for flashbulb, but dropped for everyday events congruence scores high for flashbulb, but dropped for everyday events All participants remembered 911, but only 65% were able to recall what the other memory was All participants remembered 911, but only 65% were able to recall what the other memory was

23. Are Flashbulb Memories Special? Davidson and Coworkers (2006) – also 911 Davidson and Coworkers (2006) – also 911 Found flashbulb memories more resistant to fading Found flashbulb memories more resistant to fading congruence scores high for flashbulb, but dropped for everyday events congruence scores high for flashbulb, but dropped for everyday events All participants remembered 911, but only 65% were able to recall what the other memory was All participants remembered 911, but only 65% were able to recall what the other memory was Why? Why? Flashbulb memories about emotional events (amygdala) Flashbulb memories about emotional events (amygdala) Added rehearsal: narrative rehearsal hypothesis Added rehearsal: narrative rehearsal hypothesis

24. Are Flashbulb Memories Special? What’s the point? Are they or aren’t they? What’s the point? Are they or aren’t they? Two studies found conflicting results Two studies found conflicting results Differed with respect to cues Differed with respect to cues Talarico & Rubins – participants created their own… therefore remembered everyday memories better (Mantyla from last time) Talarico & Rubins – participants created their own… therefore remembered everyday memories better (Mantyla from last time) Robinson and Coworkers – participants used given cues Robinson and Coworkers – participants used given cues Still an open debate Still an open debate About memory in general, this tells us… About memory in general, this tells us… Emotional context of event can influence memory Emotional context of event can influence memory Knowledge (even if it comes later) can affect the original memory Knowledge (even if it comes later) can affect the original memory

25. The Constructive Nature of Memory

26. People reporting memories unknowingly People reporting memories unknowingly Omit details Omit details Distort or change things that actually happened Distort or change things that actually happened Report things that never actually happened Report things that never actually happened Constructive approach to memory Constructive approach to memory What people report as memories are constructed by the person based on what happened plus additional factors (knowledge, experience, expectations) What people report as memories are constructed by the person based on what happened plus additional factors (knowledge, experience, expectations)

27. “War of the Ghosts” Bartlett (1932) Description of myth from an unfamiliar culture Description of myth from an unfamiliar culture Repeated production – participants came back a number of times to tell the same story Repeated production – participants came back a number of times to tell the same story Similar to repeated recall for flashbulb memories Similar to repeated recall for flashbulb memories Participants made more errors over time Participants made more errors over time Errors reflected something about the process Errors reflected something about the process Story changed to be consistent with participants’ culture Story changed to be consistent with participants’ culture Confusing details left out Confusing details left out Details changed (canoe -> boat) Details changed (canoe -> boat)

28. Educated Guesses Bahrick and Coworkers (1996) Bahrick and Coworkers (1996) Recall your own high school grades Recall your own high school grades A recall = 89% A recall = 89% D recall = 29% D recall = 29% Why these types of errors? Why these types of errors? People tend to remember positive events more People tend to remember positive events more Memory is constructive Memory is constructive If they were A/B students, they make a prediction that a specific grade was most likely an A, and remember it that way If they were A/B students, they make a prediction that a specific grade was most likely an A, and remember it that way How does constructive memory work? How does constructive memory work?

29. Source Monitoring Source monitoring (and errors) is part of the explanation for how constructive memory works Source monitoring (and errors) is part of the explanation for how constructive memory works Source memory is the memory for how you acquired a certain memory Source memory is the memory for how you acquired a certain memory Did I hear that on the news or did someone tell me? Did I hear that on the news or did someone tell me? Source monitoring errors / source misattributions are when you remember the fact, but think it came from the wrong source Source monitoring errors / source misattributions are when you remember the fact, but think it came from the wrong source Memories disconnected from source over time Memories disconnected from source over time

30. Source Monitoring Errors Jacoby and Coworkers (1989) – becoming famous overnight Jacoby and Coworkers (1989) – becoming famous overnight Acquistion: read a list of names (all made up, and people were told this just after reading) Acquistion: read a list of names (all made up, and people were told this just after reading) Immediate test: identify famous names from list Immediate test: identify famous names from list Non-famous, new names Non-famous, new names Names from prior list Names from prior list Famous names Famous names Delayed test: same as immediate, 1 day later Delayed test: same as immediate, 1 day later

31. Source Monitoring Errors Jacoby and Coworkers (1989) – becoming famous overnight Jacoby and Coworkers (1989) – becoming famous overnight Results: made-up names from the list that people saw in the acquisition stage were more likely to be rated as famous (in participants’ memory these fictitious people “became famous overnight”) Results: made-up names from the list that people saw in the acquisition stage were more likely to be rated as famous (in participants’ memory these fictitious people “became famous overnight”) Explanation: Made-up names more familiar than new names during delayed test, but participants didn’t remember why they seemed so familiar (source), so they attributed familiarity to famousness Explanation: Made-up names more familiar than new names during delayed test, but participants didn’t remember why they seemed so familiar (source), so they attributed familiarity to famousness

32. Constructive Memory Source misattribution involves participants making inferences about the source, and using those to construct / reconstruct memory Source misattribution involves participants making inferences about the source, and using those to construct / reconstruct memory Flashbulb memory studies Flashbulb memory studies Bartlett’s war of the ghosts experiment Bartlett’s war of the ghosts experiment Bahrick & coworkers’ high school grades experiment Bahrick & coworkers’ high school grades experiment Jacoby & coworkers’ becoming famous overnight Jacoby & coworkers’ becoming famous overnight

33. Memory and Inference So memory as a constructive process So memory as a constructive process What we remember is constructed based on events, percepts, experience and knowledge What we remember is constructed based on events, percepts, experience and knowledge The process of memory construction involves making inferences The process of memory construction involves making inferences This is a normal consequence of a largely adaptive memory– in other words “it’s a good thing.” This is a normal consequence of a largely adaptive memory– in other words “it’s a good thing.”

34. Brewer (1977) / McDermott & Chan (2006) The children’s snowman vanished when the temperature reached 80. The children’s snowman vanished when the temperature reached 80. The flimsy shelf weakened under the weight of the books. The flimsy shelf weakened under the weight of the books. The absent-minded professor didn’t have his car keys. The absent-minded professor didn’t have his car keys. The karate champion hit the cinder block. The karate champion hit the cinder block. The new baby stayed awake all night. The new baby stayed awake all night.

35. …… people who read these sentence often inaccurate remembered the sentences as…

36. Brewer (1977) / McDermott & Chan (2006) The children’s snowman vanished when the temperature reached 80. The children’s snowman vanished when the temperature reached 80. The flimsy shelf weakened under the weight of the books. The flimsy shelf weakened under the weight of the books. The absent-minded professor didn’t have his car keys. The absent-minded professor didn’t have his car keys. The karate champion hit the cinder block. The karate champion hit the cinder block. The new baby stayed awake all night. The new baby stayed awake all night. melted lost collapsed broke cried

37. Pragmatic Inference Changes in wording we just saw are examples of pragmatic inference Changes in wording we just saw are examples of pragmatic inference We use our experience to fill in the details without even realizing we are doing it We use our experience to fill in the details without even realizing we are doing it Two more in the book you should know about Two more in the book you should know about Bransford & Johnson (1973) – hammer example Bransford & Johnson (1973) – hammer example Arkes & Freedman (1984) – baseball example Arkes & Freedman (1984) – baseball example Inference uses knowledge and experience, which are represented by schemas and scripts Inference uses knowledge and experience, which are represented by schemas and scripts

38. Schemas Schemas are representations of what is usually or prototypically involved in an experience Schemas are representations of what is usually or prototypically involved in an experience A kids’ birthday party, a movie, oktoberfest, holidays A kids’ birthday party, a movie, oktoberfest, holidays Even if a movie theater is out of popcorn when you go, you may later infer there was popcorn there Even if a movie theater is out of popcorn when you go, you may later infer there was popcorn there Brewer & Treyens (1981) - office study Brewer & Treyens (1981) - office study This type of representation is what causes us to substitute “cried” for “stayed up all night” in the sentences we heard earlier This type of representation is what causes us to substitute “cried” for “stayed up all night” in the sentences we heard earlier

39. Scripts are representations of the sequence of actions that usually occur during an experience Scripts are representations of the sequence of actions that usually occur during an experience Restaurant, class, sports, evening out, holidays Restaurant, class, sports, evening out, holidays Even if you may not have gone trick-or-treating one Halloween, you may remember doing so later Even if you may not have gone trick-or-treating one Halloween, you may remember doing so later Bower and Coworkers (1979) – dentist office study Bower and Coworkers (1979) – dentist office study Scripts

40. Bower and Coworkers (1979) The Dentist Bill had a bad toothache. It seemed like forever before he finally arrived at the dentist office. Bill looked around at the various dental posters on the wall. Finally the dental hygienist checked and x-rayed his teeth. He wondered what the dentist was doing. The dentist said that Bill had a lot of cavities. As soon as he’d made another appointment, he left the dentist’s office.

41. Bower and Coworkers (1979) Study included many stories like “the dentist” Study included many stories like “the dentist” After a delay, participants were given titles and asked to write what they remembered about the stories After a delay, participants were given titles and asked to write what they remembered about the stories “Bill checked in with the dentist’s receptionist” …. “Bill checked in with the dentist’s receptionist” …. ….Common even though it wasn’t really there ….Common even though it wasn’t really there People filled in details based on their own script for going to the dentist People filled in details based on their own script for going to the dentist

42. Construction: Plusses & Minuses Inferences in memory are much like gestalt laws in perception – they are also heuristics Inferences in memory are much like gestalt laws in perception – they are also heuristics Heuristics – provide a “best guess” which is fast, efficient and easy to store, but sometimes inaccurate Heuristics – provide a “best guess” which is fast, efficient and easy to store, but sometimes inaccurate Hammer example – how inefficient it would be to have to make all these details clear every time! Hammer example – how inefficient it would be to have to make all these details clear every time! Algorithms – opposite of heuristics, provide an accurate answer but take time, capacity, etc. Algorithms – opposite of heuristics, provide an accurate answer but take time, capacity, etc. In the case of memory, require infinite storage In the case of memory, require infinite storage S in the book was said to have this (it wasn’t all good!) S in the book was said to have this (it wasn’t all good!)

43. Like gestalt laws, in practical terms our inferences are very often right Like gestalt laws, in practical terms our inferences are very often right Sometimes our memories can be manipulated by suggestions by others Sometimes our memories can be manipulated by suggestions by others Memories created Memories created Memories changed Memories changed Ramifications for law and the court system Ramifications for law and the court system Construction: Plusses & Minuses

44. Memory and Suggestion

45. The Power of Suggestion People are suggestible People are suggestible Advertisements, political arguments affect our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors Advertisements, political arguments affect our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors Information presented by others can also influence our memory for past events Information presented by others can also influence our memory for past events Misinformation Effect – misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how the person describes the event later Misinformation Effect – misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how the person describes the event later Misleading information in this situation is called misleading postevent information (MPI) Misleading information in this situation is called misleading postevent information (MPI)

46. Method: Presenting MPI Step 1: Information to be remembered is presented Step 1: Information to be remembered is presented Could be a list of words, film, slideshow, etc. Could be a list of words, film, slideshow, etc. Step 2: MPI is presented to some participants and not others Step 2: MPI is presented to some participants and not others MPI is presented in a natural way so participants do not know they are being misled MPI is presented in a natural way so participants do not know they are being misled Step 3: All participants report on their memory of the information presented in step 1 Step 3: All participants report on their memory of the information presented in step 1 Reports compared for the two groups of participants Reports compared for the two groups of participants

47. Loftus & Coworkers (1978) Step 1: slide show of accident Step 1: slide show of accident Car stops at a stop sign, then turns corner and hits pedestrian Car stops at a stop sign, then turns corner and hits pedestrian Step 2: participants answer questions Step 2: participants answer questions MPI group: “did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the yield sign?” MPI group: “did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the yield sign?” Control:“did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the stop sign?” Control:“did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the stop sign?” Step 3: participants see pictures, say which are old Step 3: participants see pictures, say which are old Critical picture: car parked at a yield sign (new picture) Critical picture: car parked at a yield sign (new picture) MPI group more likely to say yes (which was an error) MPI group more likely to say yes (which was an error)

48. Loftus & Coworkers (1978) Study demonstrates that misleading postevent information (MPI) can affect details of what people remember seeing Study demonstrates that misleading postevent information (MPI) can affect details of what people remember seeing Another similar study looks at how MPI can affect the conclusions people draw about other aspects of the situation Another similar study looks at how MPI can affect the conclusions people draw about other aspects of the situation Also replicates the finding from Loftus & Coworkers (1978) Also replicates the finding from Loftus & Coworkers (1978)

49. Loftus and Palmer (1974) Participants watched a video of a car crash Participants watched a video of a car crash Participants answered questions about the film Participants answered questions about the film MPI group: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? MPI group: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Control: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Control: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Answers compared Answers compared MPI group (smashed) answered 41 mph, on avg. MPI group (smashed) answered 41 mph, on avg. Control group (hit) answered 34 mph, on avg. Control group (hit) answered 34 mph, on avg.

50. Loftus (1993, 1998) Participants from Loftus & Palmer invited back one year later Participants from Loftus & Palmer invited back one year later Question: Did you see any broken glass? (no = right) Question: Did you see any broken glass? (no = right) Results Results MPI group (smashed) answered yes 32% MPI group (smashed) answered yes 32% Control group (hit) answered yes 14% Control group (hit) answered yes 14% More evidence that MPI affects memory for details (even details that are inferred) More evidence that MPI affects memory for details (even details that are inferred) How does this happen??? How does this happen???

51. What Causes the Misinformation Effect? Memory-trace replacement hypothesis (Loftus) Memory-trace replacement hypothesis (Loftus) MPI replaces memories for the original event MPI replaces memories for the original event Process of consolidation is a possible mechanism Process of consolidation is a possible mechanism Retroactive interference hypothesis Retroactive interference hypothesis Recent information interferes with (but doesn’t replace) previously learned information Recent information interferes with (but doesn’t replace) previously learned information Source monitoring error hypothsis Source monitoring error hypothsis Both memories are stored, but during recall we forget which came from which source Both memories are stored, but during recall we forget which came from which source

52. Evidence: Source Monitoring Error Lindsay (1990) Lindsay (1990) Day 1: People saw slides, narrated by female voice Day 1: People saw slides, narrated by female voice Day 2: People heard story (no slides) with a few details changed (brand names, etc.) Day 2: People heard story (no slides) with a few details changed (brand names, etc.) All MPI, no control group All MPI, no control group Some participants heard a male voice tell the story, while others heard a female voice tell the story Some participants heard a male voice tell the story, while others heard a female voice tell the story Data: answers to questions about details that were changed for the story and details that were not Data: answers to questions about details that were changed for the story and details that were not Why are voices important? Voice can be a cue to source, which may make it easier to remember Why are voices important? Voice can be a cue to source, which may make it easier to remember

53. Lindsay (1990) % “suggested” responses (wrong) Female Voice Male Voice Misled details Control details

54. Source Monitoring Errors False memories for early events also related to source monitoring False memories for early events also related to source monitoring Hyman, Jr. and Coworkers (1995) Hyman, Jr. and Coworkers (1995) Got stories from parents of college students Got stories from parents of college students Asked students about these events (and fake ones) Asked students about these events (and fake ones) With repeated recall, false memories were induced With repeated recall, false memories were induced How is this a source monitoring error? How is this a source monitoring error? Familiarity caused people to believe it happened, and then they happily filled in details via inference Familiarity caused people to believe it happened, and then they happily filled in details via inference

55. More on False Memories for Early Events Lindsay and Coworkers (2004) – Slime study Lindsay and Coworkers (2004) – Slime study False memory effect stronger with a picture False memory effect stronger with a picture DuBreuil and Coworkers (1998) – Mobiles DuBreuil and Coworkers (1998) – Mobiles False memories can come out during hypnosis False memories can come out during hypnosis People are very confident that these are real People are very confident that these are real

56. Eyewitness Testimony

57. Memory and Law Eyewitness testimony – when someone who was present at a crime reports about what he or she saw Eyewitness testimony – when someone who was present at a crime reports about what he or she saw Most convincing types of evidence for a jury Most convincing types of evidence for a jury Witness confident-> evidence even more convincing Witness confident-> evidence even more convincing Accuracy & Confidence correlation is 0.29 Accuracy & Confidence correlation is 0.29 Errors have of eyewitness testimony have resulted in the conviction of innocent people Errors have of eyewitness testimony have resulted in the conviction of innocent people

58. Memory and Law David Webb, Charles Clark, Lenell Gertner all went to jail (later released when testimony was discovered to be inaccurate) David Webb, Charles Clark, Lenell Gertner all went to jail (later released when testimony was discovered to be inaccurate) 40 cases of exoneration based on DNA evidence that became available after conviction 40 cases of exoneration based on DNA evidence that became available after conviction 36 involved erroneous eyewitness testimony 36 involved erroneous eyewitness testimony 8.5 average years in prison 8.5 average years in prison 5 death sentences 5 death sentences

59. Perceptual Errors Eyewitness testimony can be affected by both perception and memory – we’ll start with perception Eyewitness testimony can be affected by both perception and memory – we’ll start with perception Two studies presented videos of crimes to participants and then gave them photos, asked them to identify the perpetrator Two studies presented videos of crimes to participants and then gave them photos, asked them to identify the perpetrator 100% / 61% picked someone from the photos, even though the correct person wasn’t in the photos 100% / 61% picked someone from the photos, even though the correct person wasn’t in the photos In actual crime scenes, many causes… In actual crime scenes, many causes…

60. Crime Scenes Errors associated with Attention Errors associated with Attention Easterbrook (1959) – as arousal increases, attention narrows Easterbrook (1959) – as arousal increases, attention narrows crime scenes arousal is high, relevant details can be missed crime scenes arousal is high, relevant details can be missed Weapons focus – presence of a weapon narrows attention Weapons focus – presence of a weapon narrows attention Worse if weapon is fired (Stanny and Johnson, 2000) Worse if weapon is fired (Stanny and Johnson, 2000) Decreases memory for victim, perpetrator AND weapon Decreases memory for victim, perpetrator AND weapon

61. Crime Scenes Errors due to familiarity Errors due to familiarity Crime scenes involve perpetrator, victim, and innocent bystanders Crime scenes involve perpetrator, victim, and innocent bystanders Bystanders can be incorrectly identified as perpetrators based on familiarity Bystanders can be incorrectly identified as perpetrators based on familiarity Memory researcher Donald Thompson Memory researcher Donald Thompson Sailor example Sailor example Confirmed in lab studies Confirmed in lab studies

62. Crime Scenes Errors due to suggestion Errors due to suggestion “did you see the white car?” – later may have a false memory of a white car “did you see the white car?” – later may have a false memory of a white car “which one of these men did it?” – implies that the person is in the lineup “which one of these men did it?” – implies that the person is in the lineup Witness selects one, then becomes confident over time Witness selects one, then becomes confident over time “that one???” “OK” – confirmation of the witness’s choice (which will inflate confidence in the choice) “that one???” “OK” – confirmation of the witness’s choice (which will inflate confidence in the choice) Wells and Bradfield (1998) confirmed in the lab Wells and Bradfield (1998) confirmed in the lab

63. Crime Scenes Increasing confidence due to postevent questioning Increasing confidence due to postevent questioning Shaw (1996) – participants were more confident in false memories of items from an apartment if they had been asked questions about them Shaw (1996) – participants were more confident in false memories of items from an apartment if they had been asked questions about them Answering questions about an object makes it easier to retrieve memories about it later Answering questions about an object makes it easier to retrieve memories about it later People mistake ease of retrieval for accuracy People mistake ease of retrieval for accuracy

64. What can be done? First, recognize the problem and communicate it to jurors First, recognize the problem and communicate it to jurors Make some procedural changes Make some procedural changes Inform witnesses that perp may not be in the lineup Inform witnesses that perp may not be in the lineup In lineups, use “fillers” that are similar to the suspect In lineups, use “fillers” that are similar to the suspect When presenting a lineup use sequential rather than simultaneous presentation When presenting a lineup use sequential rather than simultaneous presentation Improve interviewing techniques Improve interviewing techniques Cognitive interview (25-60% more information than police interview) Cognitive interview (25-60% more information than police interview)