1. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 1 ECE 406 – Design of Complex Digital Systems Lecture 11: Memories, LC-3 Instruction Set Spring 2007 W. Rhett Davis NC State University with significant material from Paul Franzon, Bill Allen, & Xun Liu

2. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 2 Today’s Lecture l Using Memories l Review of the LC3 Instruction Set

3. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 3 Memories Modules of even modest complexity usually contain memories. Applications of memories include register files, RAM & ROM. Memories are simply arrays of identical registers! In a memory, the “registers” are called “words”. So a memory is conventionally referred to as “n word by m bit memory”. Here, n is the number of words (array elements) and m is the size of each word. (This often shortened to “n x m”.)

4. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 4 Declaring Memories reg bitmem [0:1023]// 1K x 1 (bit) memory reg [7:0] MEM [0:16383]// 16K x 8 or 16K bytes Note that the addressing range is usually specified as [ : ] and for physical reasons, the address range starts at 0. Memories are defined by the syntax: [ ]

5. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 5 Verilog Language Structure To read a single bit (or bit group), a memory word is brought out (read) and then dissected by additional logic. More importantly, on a write, the entire memory word must be written. Therefore to change only part of a memory word’s data, a read, modify, write must be done. Final comment: The syntax of Verilog (and physical structure of a memory) does not allow a portion of a memory word to be accessed.

6. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 6 Model for a ROM module ROM(addr, dout); input [13:0] addr; output [7:0] dout; reg [7:0] MEM [0:16383]// 16K x 8 or 16K bytes always @(addr) dout <= MEM[addr]; endmodule

7. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 7 Loading Memories Verilog provides two system functions (commands) which will read a data file and place the file’s data into memory. Note that these commands do not imply any hardware but is simply an artifice used for simulation. The commands are $readmemb (binary data) and $readmemh (hex data). The command syntax is: $readmem* (“ ”, ); {* =“b” or “h”} The $readmem* command can be inserted in the logic of any module in the design hierarchy. The preferred placement of this command is in the Test Fixture.

8. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 8 Loading Memories The structure of used in the $readmem* command depends on the hierarchical relationship of the modules in which the command and the memory reside. If the target memory is located in the same module as the $readmem* command, is simply the name of the memory array. Access to a memory in a module in the hierarchy falling below the test fixture is achieved by prefixing the memory name with the instantiation labels specifying the path to that module.

9. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 9 Loading Memories Examples: 1. A test fixture contains a memory named MEM and the hex data file is named mem.dat. The $readmem* command would be: $readmemh (“mem.dat”, MEM); 2. If instance dut contains a memory called MEM, it can be referenced as: $readmemh (“mem.dat”, dut.MEM);

10. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 10 Loading Memories The memory data file is a free format text file. Values read from the file are loaded sequentially into the memory (subject to addressing commands in the file). The file must contain only the binary or hexadecimal data values, address specifications, white space and comments (both // and /* */ are recognized),. Each value must be separated with white space, comment, or new-line. Data values are loaded starting at the beginning of memory unless a starting-address is specified. Load addresses can be specified with the “@” symbol followed by an address specification.

11. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 11 Loading Memories Example: Contents of a typical memory data file (in hex): // mem.dat -- initial data for memory (assumed to be 8 bits wide) @00 aa bb cc dd ee ff //loads locations 00h - 05h @10 11 22 33 44 55 66 //load locations 10h - 15h 77 //load location 16h with 77h 88 //load location 17h with 88h 99 //load location 18h with 99h @04 ab//load location 04h with ab (replacing ee) What would happen if this file were loaded into a memory with 16-bit words?

12. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 12 Today’s Lecture l Using Memories l Review of the LC3 Instruction Set

13. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 13 ISA of LC3: General Info l 16-bit wide » Each word is 2-bytes wide » The memory space has 2 16 words l 8 general purpose registers l Data type: 2-complement integers l 15 instructions l Status registers: updated w/ registers » NZP

14. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 14 Instruction Format l Opcode » IR[15:12] l Addressing mode » Immediate (sign extension) » Register » Memory: PC relative » Memory: indirect » Memory: base+offset

15. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 15 ALU Operation Instructions l AND » AND DR, SR1, SR2 (DR ← SR1 & SR2) » AND DR, SR1, Imm (DR ← SR1 & Imm) l ADD » ADD DR, SR1, SR2 (DR ← SR1 + SR2) » ADD DR, SR1, Imm (DR ← SR1 + Imm) l NOT » NOT DR, SR1 (DR ← ~SR1)

16. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 16 ALU Operation Instructions l ADD l AND l NOT 15 12 11 9 8 6 5 4 3 2 0 0 0 0 1 DR SR100 SR2 0 1 DR SR100 SR2 0 0 0 1 DR SR11 imm50 1 DR SR11 imm51 0 0 1 DR SR1 111111

17. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 17 Control Instructions l Branch » BRx Offset (PC ← PC+Offset) if any one of the specified flags is true » …where “x” is one or more Flags: (set based on the result of the last operation) –N - Negative –Z - Zero –P - Positive » Variations: » ==0 (BRZ) » !=0 (BRNP) » >0 (BRP) » >=0 (BRZP) » <0 (BRN) » <=0 (BRNZ) » Unconditional jump (BRNZP or simply BR) » Unconditional NOT jump (BRNONE)

18. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 18 Control Instructions l Jump » JMP BaseR(PC ← BaseR) » RET(PC ← R7) l Jump to Subroutine » JSROffset(R7 ← PC, PC ← PC+Offset) » JSRR BaseR(R7 ← PC, PC ← BaseR) l Ignore the other instructions for now » RTI, TRAP

19. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 19 Control Instructions l BR l JMP l JSR l JSRR l RET l RTI l TRAP 0 0 NZP PCoffset9 15 12 11 9 8 6 5 4 3 2 0 1 1 0 0 000 BaseR0000000 1 0 0 000 BaseR0000000 1 0 0 1 PCoffset111 1 0 0 000 1110000001 0 0 0 000 0000001 1 0000 Trapvect8

20. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 20 Data Movement Instructions l Load/Store (PC relative addressing mode) » LD DR, Offset (DR ← MEM[PC+Offset]) » ST SR, Offset (MEM[PC+Offset] ← SR) l Load/Store Register (Base+Offset addressing mode) » LDR DR, BaseR, Offset (DR ← MEM[BaseR+Offset]) » STR SR, BaseR, Offset (MEM[BaseR+Offset] ← SR)

21. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 21 Data Movement Instructions l Load/Store Indirect (indirect addressing mode) » LDI DR, Offset (DR ← MEM[MEM[PC+Offset]]) » STI SR, Offset (MEM[MEM[PC+Offset]] ← SR) l Load Effective Address » LEA DR, Offset (DR ← PC+Offset)

22. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 22 Data Movement Instructions l LD: l LDR: l LDI: l LEA: l ST: l STR: l STI: 0 1 1 0 DR BaseR Offset6 15 12 11 9 8 6 5 4 3 2 0 0 0 1 0 DR PCoffset91 0 DR PCoffset91 1 1 0 DR PCoffset90 0 1 1 SR PCoffset91 0 1 1 SR PCoffset90 1 1 1 SR BaseR Offset6

23. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 23 Compile & Execute This Code 16’h3000and r0, r0, #0; 16’h3001add r0, r0, #7; 16’h3002 and r1, r1, #0; 16’h3003 add r1, r1, #5; 16’h3004 add r0, r0,#-1; 16’h3005 brp #-3; 16’h3006 st r1, #2; 16’h3007 lea r6, #4; 16’h3008 jmp r6; 16’h3009 var1:; (0000) 16’h300A var2:; (0000) 16’h300B var3:; (0000) 16’h300C …

24. Spring 2007W. Rhett Davis with slight modification by Dean Brock UNCA ECE 406Slide 24 Finish Executing the Code 16’h3009 var1:; (0000) 16’h300A var2:; (0000) 16’h300B var3:; (0000) 16’h300C ld r2, #-4; (25FC) 16’h300D add r2, r2, #1; (14A1) 16’h300E str r2, r6, #-2; (75BE) 16’h300F str r6, r6, #-1 ; (7DBF) 16’h3010 ldi r3, #-6; (A7FA) 16’h3011jsr #1; (4801) 16’h3012 brnzp #-1; (0FFF) 16’h3013ret; (C1C0)