1. Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) Tung Dao Manh. Future Internet Class, 2007.03.27 1

2. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Agenda Introduction IGRP Characteristics Distance vector routing IGRP Metrics IGRP Timers IGRP Route Types Unequal-cost load balancing IGRP packet format IGRP Stability Features Count to infinity Hold-down Split horizon with poison reverse Triggered update with route poisoning Comparison between IRGP and RIP Conclusion 2

3. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Introduction  Developed by Cisco in the mid-1980’s as a better alternative solution to RIP (Routing Information Protocol). A distance vector protocol Main goal was to be a robust protocol for routing within an autonomous system IGRP was initially decided to run in any network environments, but ported to run in OSI Connectionless-Network Protocol (CLNP).  Many organizations with large internetworks replaced RIP with IGRP, because it is superior than RIP in: More scalability with supported hop-count up to 255 More flexibility with sophisticated metric, a composite metric of 5 variables; and Multi-path support across unequal path. Background 3

4. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Introduction Routing Protocols InteriorExterior Dist-VectorLink-StateHybrid RIPIGRPOSPFEIGRP EGPBGP Routing Protocol Classification 4

5. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Introduction  Interior Routing protocols operated within an Autonomous System.  Exterior Routing protocols operated between Autonomous Systems. Interior Routing Vs Exterior Routing 5

6. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Introduction  Definition: Collection of routers and networks under the same administration or routing policy. Usually under single ownership, trust and administrative control.  When using AS: Multi-home networks to different providers. Routing policy is different to external peers. Autonomous System (AS) 6

7. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Introduction  Characteristics: Internal connectivity: All parts of an AS must remain connected, meaning that its all routers must exchange routing information in order to maintain the connectivity. A single routing protocol required to run in an AS, between all routers. In 1982, terminology, routers inside an AS were called “interior gateway s” and the protocol was an “Interior Gateway Protocol” (IGP). Each AS is identified by a 16-bit “AS number”. Autonomous System (AS) EGP is used to exchange information among Ass. 7

8. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics  Mathematically compare routes using some measurement of distance (distance vector).  Routers send all or a portion of their routing table in a routing- update message at regular intervals to each of their neighboring routers.  As routing information proliferates, routers: Identify new destinations Learn failure through the network Calculate distance to all known destinations. Distance Vector Routing (1/3) 8

9. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics Distance Vector Routing (2/3) Routing table E 9

10. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics Distance Vector Routing (3/3) DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance ALocal0 B C 1 2 A C B Routing table A Routing table B DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A BLocal0 DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A CLocal0 Routing table C Initially, each router initializing its local knowledge: remember its own address and be able to identify the links attached to it. It then broadcasts its routing table to all its neighbors. It updates its routing table when noticing a change. The process continues until the network converges DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance ALocal0 B11 C Update broadcast Update DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A21 B22 CLocal0 Broadcast DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance ALocal0 B11 C21 Update DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A11 BLocal0 C12 Broadcas t 10

11. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Stability Features Count To Infinity  Problem: Counting to infinity DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance ALocal0 B11 C21 12 A C B DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A11 BLocal0 C12 Routing table A Routing table B A captures the change DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance ALocal0 B11 C2Inf DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance ALocal0 B11 C23 Update routing table Updating DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A11 BLocal0 C14 11

12. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Stability Features Split Horizon  Solution: Split Horizon Split horizon is based on very simple precaution: it is never useful to send information about a route back in the direction from which it came. DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance ALocal0 B11 C2inf 12 A C B DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A11 BLocal0 C12 Routing table A Routing table B Update DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A11 BLocal0 C1inf The Network converges ! 12

13. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Stability Features Poison-reverse update  Solution: Poison-reverse update Is a way in which a router tells its neighboring router that one of the routers is no longer connected; or disqualifies a route back a long the interface on which it learned the route by setting the unconnected router to a defined number. DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance ALocal0 B11 C21 12 A C B DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A11 BLocal0 C12 Routing table A Routing table B DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A11 BLocal0 C1inf The Network converges ! A captures and updates DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance ALocal0 B11 C2inf B modifies routin g table before sending 13

14. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Stability Features Triggered Update  Solution: Triggered Update Is an attempt to increase the responsiveness of the protocol by requesting nodes to send message as soon as they notice a change in their routing table with out having to wait for the end of the period. DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance ALocal0 B11 C21 12 A C B DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A11 BLocal0 C12 Routing table A Routing table B Update DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance A11 BLocal0 C1inf The Network converges ! A captures th e change and updates DestinationOutgoing LinkDistance ALocal0 B11 C2inf A send updat e immediately to B 14

15. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics IGRP Timers (1/2)  IGRP maintains a numbers of timers and variables containing time intervals, including: Update timer Invalid timer Hold-time period Flush timer  Update timer: updates are broadcast by all routers on all connected interfaces. The default is once every 90 seconds.  Invalid timer: specify how long a router should wait in the absence of routing-update messages about a specific route before declaring that route is invalid.  Hold-time variable: specify the “hold-down” period, indicating how long the state “hold-down” of the destination should last. 15

16. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics IGRP Timers (2/2) 90 secs – Update and Invalid timers are then reset.Update 270 secs - Invalid timer expires, route now “unreachable” but still in routing table until flush timer expires. Holddown timer of 280 sec begins. Invalid 280 secs – Holddown timer expires, will now accept a poorer route to same network. Still in routing table Holddown 630 secs – Route will now be removed from the routing table. Flush The flush timer starts after the first 90 second update is missed.  Update timer: how frequently routing update messages should be sent  Invalid timer: how long a router should wait in the absence of routing-update messages about a specific route before declaring that route invalid (unreachable), but still in the routing table  Holddown timer: specifies the amount of time for which information about poorer routes are ignored.  Flush timer: how much time should pass before a route is flushed from the routing table 16

17. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics IRGP Routes (1/4)  IGRP flags candidates for a default route. Candidates are identified as routes to the edge of the network.  The candidate with the lowest metric is selected as the default route Handling of default routes 17

18. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics IRGP Routes (2/4) Interior routes:  Interior routes are routes between subnets in the network attached to a router interface.  If the network attached to a router is not subnetted, IGRP does not advertise interior routes. 18

19. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics IRGP Routes (3/4) System routes: “System routes are routes to networks within an autonomous system. The Cisco IOS software derives system routes from directly connected network interfaces and system route information provided by other IGRP-speaking routers or access servers. System routes do not include subnet information.” 19 routes to summarized networks within an AS.

20. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics IRGP Routes (4/4) Exterior routes: routes to networks outside the AS and are called default networks. “Exterior routes are routes to networks outside the autonomous system that are considered when identifying a gateway of last resort. The Cisco IOS software chooses a gateway of last resort from the list of exterior routes that IGRP provides. The software uses the gateway (router) of last resort if a better route is not found and the destination is not a connected network. If the autonomous system has more than one connection to an external network, different routers can choose different exterior routers as the gateway of last resort.” 20

21. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP IGRP Stability Features  Count to infinity  Split horizons with poison-reverse  Triggered update with route poisoning  Hold-downs: when a route is removed, no new route would be accepted for the same destination for some period of time, the triggered update has time to propagate throughout the network. 21

22. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics IGRP Metrics (1/3)  Composite metric Bandwidth Delay Load (opt) Reliability (opt) MTU (opt): MTU has never been used by IGRP or EIGRP as a routing metric. By default, only Bandwidth and Delay are used  Additionally, Hop-Count is tracked Only used to limit network diameter 0..255, default maximum hop-count = 100 22

23. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics IGRP Metrics (2/3)  IGRP uses a 24-bit metric field Bandwidth: Minimum bandwidth in the route, in kilobits per second (kps). Delay: The cumulative interface delay along the path in ten of microseconds. Reliability: Likelihood of successful transmission, express as an integer from 0..255. Loading: The load on a link towards the destination based on bits per second MTU: Maximum Transmission Unit, is the size of the largest datagram that can be sent over a network. minimum MTU in path, expressed in bytes. 23

24. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics  Composite Metric: Metric = (k1*IGRP-BW + (k2 *IGRP-BW)/(256-Load) + k3*IGRP- DLY) * k5/(Reliability+k4) oMinimum IGRP-BW of all outgoing interfaces along the route to the destination. IGRP-BW = 10^7/BW. oIGRP-DLY: Sum of all delays of the route. Default: K1=K3=1, K2=k4=k5=0. Default metric = (IGRP-BW) + (IGRP-DLY.) Unreachable routes are marked with IGRP-DLY=0xFFFFFF (k1, k2, k3, k4, k5) is metric weights, having great impact on network performance The load on a link towards the destination based on bits per second. IGRP Metrics (3/3) 24

25. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Unequal-cost Load Balancing  Load balancing is the way in which a router loads share across multi-paths to the same destination, helping decrease load over a single path.  Unlike RIP, IGRP not only support equal-cost balancing but also unequal cost balancing, allowing us can load share unequal-cost paths.  This process is controlled by the parameter, the Variance. The variance is defined with a multiplier that represents the difference between the metrics of the paths. In the above example The variance should be higher than 25.4 25 Metric = 7100 Metric = 180671 = 25.4 * 7100

26. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics IGRP Packet Format(1/2) Version: is always set to 1 OPCode: 1 for request packet; 2 for up date packet. A request packet consists header with no entry. Edition: This number is incremented by the sender so that the receiving router does not use an old update Autonomous system number: the ID number of IGRP process, this tag allows multi IGRP processes to exchange information over a common link. General Header fields: 26

27. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics IGRP Packet Format (2/2) Number of interior routes: indicates how many of the routing entries in this update are subnets of a directly connected network. Number of system routes: indicates how many of the routing entries in this update are not from a directly connected network. Number of exterior routes: indicates how many of the routing entries in this update are default networks. Checksum: calculated on the header and the entries. With its field set to 0, the 16-bit one's complement sum is calculated and then inserted into this field. At the other end, the 16-bit one's complement is calculated again by the other router but this time including the already calculated value in the Checksum field. The result on a good packet will be 0xFFFF. 27

28. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea IGRP Characteristics IGRP Packet Format (2/2) Bandwidth: IGRP bandwidth. MTU: The smallest MTU encountered along the route to this particular destination network Reliability - A number between 0x01 and 0xFF to indicate the error rates totalled along the route. 0xFF is reliable. Load - A number between 0x01 and 0xFF expressing the total load along a route where 0xFF is totally loaded. Hop Count - A number between 0x00 (directly connected network) and 0xFF. Note that the Delay and Bandwidth values are 24-bit with IGRP. Up to 104 fourteen-byte entries. Maximum packet size = 1468 bytes (including header). 28 Destination - Destination network, just containing the last three octets for interior routes (e.g. 24.5.0 for the network 10.24.5. 0) since the first octet will be known. For System and External routes, the routes would have been summarized so the last octet will always be zero (e.g. 10.24.5.0 will be entered as 10.24.5). Delay: The number of 10 microsecond chunks which is the sum of delays.

29. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Comparison between IGRP and RIP CharacteristicRIPv1RIPv2IGRP Count to infinity X X X Split horizon X X X Hold-down timer X X X Triggered updates with route poisoning X X X Load balancing—Equal paths X X X Load balancing—Unequal paths X VLSM support X Routing algorithm B-F B-F B-F Metric Hops Hops Comp Hop count limit 16 16 100 Scalability Med Med Large CharacteristicRIPv1RIPv2IGRP Count to infinity X X X Split horizon X X X Hold-down timer X X X Triggered updates with route poisoning X X X Load balancing—Equal paths X X X Load balancing—Unequal paths X VLSM support X Routing algorithm B-F B-F B-F Metric Hops Hops Comp Hop count limit 16 16 100 Scalability Med Med Large 29

30. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Conclusion  IGRP has proven to be one of the most successful routing protocols. A highly successful and widely deployed routing protocol. Preserving many the effective features of RIP, while greatly expanding its capabilities.  Disadvantage of IGRP is the lack of supporting for variable- length subnet masks (VLSM). EIGRP comes to solve that problem. 30

31. POSTECH Copyright © 2007 SE Lab. Dept. of CSE POSTECH, R.O. Korea Question and Comment ?