2. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities www.nfi.net Acknowledging gender variance and sexual identities and their impact on successful HIV prevention programming 2 nd International Expert Meeting on HIV Prevention on MSM, WSW and Transgenders 5 th – 6 th November, 2009 Amsterdam, Netherlands

3. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 2 Religious beliefs and customs, gender roles and idenitities, denial, ignorance, illegality, myths, fears, violence, abuse, exclusion, and invisibility create a discourse that often denies much of male-to-male sexual behaviour in society along with shaping its expression. At the same time, current discourses on sexual identity, sexual orientation, and “sexual minorities”, also can increases the invisibility of much male-to-male sex.

4. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 3 The problem with naming! First gay 'marriage' in Pakistan… A gay couple have become the first to get "married" in Pakistan, according to reports from the region.Witnesses said a 42-year-old Afghan refugee held a marriage ceremony with a local tribesman of 16 in the remote Khyber region bordering Afghanistan…….. BBC news 5 October 2005

5. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 4 MindBody ManWoman MaleFemale MasculineFeminine YoungOld HeterosexualHomosexual StraightGay A binary, hierarchal and oppositional world The world is not so simple

6. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 5 South Asia Man Not-manWoman A trinary world?

7. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 6 Male-male sexual frameworks Gendered framework Male to male desire based on feminised gendered roles and identification - sexual acts based on gender roles, i.e. man/not-man Note that these are not transgendered persons

8. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 7 “Why do men have sex with men? This is not normal. We kothis/zenana are here for them”. “I don’t mind if my girya beats me up. It only shows how manly and powerful he is”. “When my parik (“husband”) beats me, I feel as helpless as a woman. Since I want to be a woman, it actually makes me feel good”. Kothis/metis/zenanas/hijras recognise that they are neither women or men, but some “other”.

9. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 8 Discharge framework Male to male sexual behaviours arising from immediate access, opportunity, and “body heat”. They involve boys/men from the general male population “using” receptive, feminised males for “discharge”. Also involves males in all-male institutions

10. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 9 Across the region Doing masti Opportunistic - body heat, mutual desire and friendship – usually pre- marital Often no significance in terms of orientation and/or identity These males do not perceive themselves as homosexuals, but rather doing masti.

11. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 10 Beardless boys Older men form relationships with adolescent males - usually between 12 and 18 years - before these males grow beards. Beardless boys Beautiful boys Dancing boys Such boys are not men Primarily in Afghanistan and in Pakistan, but also exists to some extent across the region

12. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 11 Emergent gay framework Male to male desire framed by sexual orientation. Egalitarian – the same - Primarily used by middle and upper classes. Such gay identified men usually seek other gay identified men as sex partners.

13. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 12 Identities and/or behaviour Community versus individual Shame versus guilt Toxic masculinity Genderphobia Of course this is all much more complicated than presented.

14. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 13 Key issues Sexual diversity and polymorphous sexual behaviours A primary gendered framework of male-to-male sexual behaviours Many ‘MSM’ perceive themselves as a part of a ‘real man’/’not-man’ binary Marriage as socially compulsory Early sexual debut often arising from gendered performativity Gender segregation and social control of females Often male-to-male sex perceived within a context of play - not sex

15. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 14 Denial of social justice and human rights Low to non-existent financial and social investment in HIV prevention, treatment, care and support Apart from possibly infecting each other through high- risk activities, many MSM are also married, and/or have sex with other females.

16. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 15 Stigma and violence 42% reported that they had been sexually assaulted or raped by policemen. 60% reported sexual assault or rape by goondas (goons). 75% of those reporting being sexually assaulted or raped by either policemen or goondas, stated that this occurred because they were effeminate. 70% of respondents reported facing harassment from police, ranging from extortion, blackmail, beatings, restrictions to movement, and disclosure of sexual practices to goondas and family members.

17. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 16 Stigma and violence Education, poverty, & vulnerability to violence 50% stated that fellow students or teachers harassed them in school or college because they were effeminate, drastically effecting their education and employment opportunities. 70% stated that the fact that they had sex with other males has had negative impact on their economic prospects. 45% respondents stated that their effeminacy had affected their work opportunities. 82% respondents stated that if they were not kothis, they would have better job opportunities.

18. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 17 What would the psychological and social experience be of a person who experiences a major conflict between what these social, religious and cultural expectations and roles he is expected to express and perform, and his own sense of self? Disempowerment Low self-esteem Low self-worth

19. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 18 A word about women who have sex with women Women socially policed Early marriage Public space as a male space Low opportunities Almost no data HIV prevalence – no data

20. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 19 A word about transgenders in South Asia Problematic term Hijras often defined as transgenders Surgical interventions? Biological males, femininity, anal receptivity Cross-dressing HIV prevalence – hijras have the highest rate in South Asia because of the frequency of penetrating partners

21. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 20 The legal framework Section 377 of the Bangladesh/Indian/Pakistan Penal Codes Anyone who voluntarily has carnal intercourse against the order of nature with man, women or animal, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description which may extend to life, or to ten years and shall also be liable to a fine. Explanation: Penetration is sufficient to constitute the offence as described in this section.

22. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 21 A similar law in Sri Lanka was amended to specifically make it “gender neutral” – Section 365a. The Afghanistan Penal Code has a specific Article on “pederasty” – seen as “sodomy” – this can be treated as subservient to the Sharia. While Nepalese laws did not explicitly criminalise homosexuality, “unnatural sex act” currently carries a prison tem of up to a year. However, the Nepal Supreme Court ruled in December 21 2007 that the rights of sexual minorities – under the concept of a third gender – need to be respected, and that all laws which impact on these rights need amendment.

23. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 22 The social and religious framework The threat of exposure in a culture where shame is the dominant mode of social control creates an environment of blackmail, suicide and coercive sex with no redress. Under Sharia law, male-male sex is also punishable by whipping, and at times, death.

24. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 23 Where we are

25. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 24 A way forward Addressing social exclusion and human rights A rights-based approach that addresses legal, social and cultural impediments to HIV programming for MSM and sensitising of law enforcement agencies, judiciary, media, government, and donors Rapid scaling up of self-help interventions providing prevention, care and support Gender/sexual orientation self-help groups towards community building and mobilising, along with recognition of gender variance and diversity Increasing financial and technical investment To achieve the above, there will be a need to significantly increase the levels of financial and technical investment for MSM and HIV programming across the region, along with new prevention technologies including rectal microbicides

26. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 25 But….. Unless we also address the social construction of penetrative masculinity that allows genderphobia be a part of this construction and which enables violence against feminised males (and females) to be socially permissible - in a society that socially excludes such males - and says they are less than human, there will always be a difference between policy and implementation.

27. Advocacy, policy and support on male sexualities 26 Thank you