1. The Columbian Exchange : --What got exchanged, and why did it matter? --What happened as a result of those exchanges? --What larger conclusions can we draw?

2. Global Ecological Zones (FAO)

4. Pre-Columbian Trade Routes in North America: prior to 1492, trade confined to the continent….

5. After 1492: Trade becomes truly global

6. Two crucial exports from Americas to Europe/Africa/Asia: maize

7. First drawing of the potato from John Gerard, Herball, or Generall Historie of Plants, 1597

8. The impacts of sheep: Valle del Mezquital, Central Mexico

9. Smallpox epidemics in North America (partial list) 1518-28--Introduced into Hispaniola, spreads to Puerto Rico, Cuba, Panama, Mexico, possibly US southwest 1630s—smallpox strikes Huron (New France) 1630—first recorded epidemic among British settlements (Massachusetts) and among Algonkin Indians; spreads west into New York 1670s—strikes Cherokee (Southeast) 1690s—Virginia 1770s—West coast 1780s—Missouri river, Great Lakes 1830s--Alaska

10. Population Figures (millions) and Implied Rates of Decline (percent) in the Indian Population of Mexico from 1519 to 1595 [from Robert McCaa] Author1519 (millions)1595 (millions) percent decline(%) "Mexico“ Rosenblat (1935)4.53.522 Aguirre-Beltrán (1946)4.52.056 Zambardino (1980)5-101.1-1.764-89 Mendizabal (1939)8.22.471 Cook and Simpson (’48) 10.52.1-3.071-80 Cook and Borah(1963)18-301.478-95 Valley of Mexico Whitmore (1992)1.3-2.70.1-0.469-96 Gibson(1964)1.50.287 128 towns Kubler(1942)0.20.150

11. Twentieth-century estimates of pre-contact population of North American Indians (from Thornton, 1982) PopulationScholar (date) 1,148,000Mooney (1910) 2,000,000-3,000,000Sapper (1924) 900,000Kroeber (1939) 1,000,000Steward (1945) 2,000,000-2,500,000Ashburn (1947) 9,800,000-12,250,000Dobyns (1966) 2,171,000Ubelaker (1976) 4,400,000Denevan (1976) 18,000,000Dobyns (1983) 12,000,000 Ramenofsky (1987) 7,000,000  Thornton (1987) 2,000,000-8,000,000Zambardino (1989)

12. Interpreting the Impact of Disease: “For the natives, they are neere all dead of small Poxe, so as the Lord Hathe cleared our title to what we possess.” --John Winthrop, first governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, 1634

13. “The Lord put an end to this quarrel [over land titles] by smiting them with smallpox….Thus did the Lord allay their quarrelsome spirit and make room for the following part of his army.” --William Wood, referring to disputes over land, in his book, New England’s Prospect (1634) Interpreting the Impact of Disease:

14. “It appears visibly that God wishes that these savages yield their place to new peoples.” --17 th Century French Explorer Interpreting the Impact of Disease:

15. Crucial factors (in addition to disease) contributing to the decline of Native populations in North America: 1.Colonial invasions  frequent, brutal warfare 2.Violent colonial policies including: forced labor, enslavement, forced relocation 3. Massive immigration of European settlers, 17-19 th centuries 4. Loss of subsistence resources to theft and competition (from colonists, displaced tribes)

16. Conclusions: 1.Biological and social impacts of species introductions are unpredictable: -sheep in Valle de Mezquital -camels -horse 2. How people react to environmental choices is crucial