1. Early America

2. Section 1: The Earliest Americans The American Continents  American continents of North and South America stretch 9,000 miles  The first Americans come from Asia over Beringia—a land bridge Peopling the Americas  During Ice Ages, glaciers extend over much of North America  Sea levels drop; a land corridor is created between Asia and Alaska  First Americans arrive in last Ice Age, 1.9 million to 10,000 B.C.  Siberian hunters follow animals from Asia to Americas  Date of first crossing might be from 40,000 to 10,000 B.C.  Recent findings suggest it happened earlier than previously thought  Most experts believe first Americans used land bridge  Others believe people came by boat

3. Hunters and Gatherers Chief Prey  The mammoth is the largest prey of early Americans  The mammoth provides materials for food, clothing, shelter, tools Following the Game  Hunters turn to smaller animals when mammoths die out  People also fish and gather plants and fruits  At end of last Ice Age, glaciers melt and seas cover the land bridge  By 10,000–12,000 years ago people had spread across the Americas The Development of Farming  Around 7000 B.C. people in Mexico begin to raise crops from seeds  By 3400 B.C. maize—corn—becomes the staple crop there  People in the Tehuacan Valley develop advanced farming methods  Agriculture spreads throughout Americas Farming Brings Great Change  Agriculture increases food supply, leads to population growth  Larger communities develop, specialized skills in arts, trades

4. Section 2: Early Mesoamerican Civilizations Olmec Beginnings  Civilization begins in Mesoamerica around 1200 B.C.  Mesoamerica—central Mexico to northern Honduras  Olmecs are the “mother culture” of Mesoamerica  Olmecs—people who create earliest civilization in southern Mexico The Rise of Olmec Civilization  First sign of Olmec culture: massive sculpture of head found in 1860  Olmec live along the Gulf Coast of Mexico until 400 B.C. Gulf Coast Geography  Area hot and humid, with swamps, jungles, thick vegetation  Heavy rainfalls lead to flooding  Area has resources: salt, tar, clay for pottery, wood, rubber, stone  Rivers provide transportation, fertile land for farming  San Lorenzo, oldest Olmec site, dates to 1150 B.C. Olmec Society  San Lorenzo has earthen mounds, pyramids, sculptures  La Venta has 100-foot-high mound of clay and earth, possibly a tomb  Olmec probably worship nature gods, including jaguar spirit Trade and Commerce  Olmec trade spans north and south  Trade spreads Olmec influence Decline of the Olmec  Reasons for Olmec collapse—by 400 B.C.—not known

5. Zapotec Civilization Arises Peoples of the Oaxaca Valley – The Oaxaca Valley of southern Mexico is hub for many civilizations – Zapotecs—people who build a new civilization in Oaxaca Valley – Unique Zapotec culture shows some Olmec influence – For centuries Zapotec live in many scattered settlements – By 1000 B.C., Zapotec build San José Mogote – By 500 B.C., Zapotec develop writing and calendar The Zapotec Flourish at Monte Albán – Around 500 B.C. Zapotecs build Monte Albán— first city in America – Population of Monte Albán about 25,000 people – City has impressive stone buildings, plaza, observatory – Stone sculptures there show Olmec influence – Zapotec decline shortly after A.D. 600 for unknown reasons

6. The Early Mesoamericans’ Legacy The Olmec Leave Their Mark  Olmec art and construction affect future cultures like the Maya  Olmec develop ceremonial centers, ritual ball games, and ruling class  Later cultures in Mesoamerica adopt Olmec ways Zapotec Contributions  Zapotec legacy: writing and calendar systems, first city builders  Monte Albán inspires other cities in America

7. Section 3: Societies Arise in the Andes Settlements on the Coastal Plain  Andes Mountains climate, environment make travel, farming difficult  Harsh deserts lie along Pacific coast  Coastal areas with rivers have good soil; are settled 3600–2500 B.C.  Around 3000 B.C. agriculture starts; by 1800 B.C., communities arise The Chavín Period  Chavín—first influential culture in South America, religion important ; Arises in mountains;  flourishes from 900 B.C. to 200 B.C.  Named for major ruin, Chavín de Huántar  City has pyramids, plazas, and massive earth mounds  Chavín culture spreads over north and central Peru  “Mother culture” in Peru—influences later cultures Nazca Achievements  Nazca—culture on southern coast of Peru  Flourishes from 200 B.C. to A.D. 600  They build irrigation systems; create puzzling designs on land  Nazca also make beautiful pottery and textiles Moche Culture  Moche—culture that thrives on northern coast of Peru  Flourishes from A.D. 100 to 700  Moche build large irrigation systems to water wide range of crops  Images on Moche tombs and pottery reveal how they lived  Neither Moche religion nor fall of culture are understood

8. The Mayans and the Andes Mts.

9. Maya Create City-States The Land of the Maya – Maya live in southern Mexico and northern Central America – Land, vegetation of this region varies – Maya culture influenced by Olmec civilization Urban Centers – In Classic Period (250 to 900) Maya build spectacular cities – Cities, like Tikal, have pyramids, temples, palaces, stone carvings – Each has a court where ritual ball game is played

10. Mayan Culture Agriculture and Trade Support Cities – Cities linked by alliances, trade – Farming maize, beans, squash is foundation of Maya life – Maya use different farming techniques Kingdoms Built on Dynasties – Farming success leads to rise of social classes – King is leader, holy figure; priests, warriors at top of social class – Middle class: merchants, artisans; bottom: peasants The Importance of Religion – Maya believe in many gods, who could be good, evil, or both – Each day is a god whose behavior could be predicted with calendars Religious Practices – Many ways of worshiping: prayer, offerings, giving blood – Maya also make human sacrifices to please gods and balance world

11. Mayan Innovations and Fall Math and Religion – Religion leads to advances in calendar, math, astronomy – Maya use two calendars: one religious (260 days), one solar (365 days) – Use calendars to find best days for life activities Written Language Preserves History – Writing system has 800 glyphs—symbols – Use writing to record history in a codex—bark- paper book – Popul Vuh—famous codex that contains Maya story of creation The End of the Maya – In late 800s, Maya abandon cities; cause for abandonment unknown – Signs of social problems: In 700s, fighting among many Maya city-states Population growth, over-farming might have hurt environment By 1500s, Maya live in small, weak city-states

12. Aztecs and the Incas

13. The Aztecs Control Central Mexico The Valley of Mexico Geography – Mountain basin 7,500 feet above sea level, large lakes, fertile soil – Teotihuacán and Toltec settle in valley, develop civilizations An Early City-State – Teotihuacán city-state rises in first century A.D. – At peak, in 500s, city has up to 200,000 people – Serves as center of trade, especially of obsidian— volcanic glass – City quickly declines; by 750 is abandoned Toltecs Take Over – About 900, Toltecs rise to power; rule for about 300 years – A warlike people, they rule by conquest – They worship fierce war god and offer human sacrifices – Toltec ruler Topiltzin tries to change religion, end human sacrifice – Encourages worship of Quetzalcoatl— “Feathered Serpent”—a new god – He is exiled to Yucatán Peninsula; by early 1200s, Toltec rule ends

14. The Aztec Empire Arrival of the Aztecs – Aztecs (or Mexica) arrive around 1200, begin working as soldiers – By own legend, a god leads them to found city of Tenochtitlán Aztecs Grow Stronger – Triple Alliance—1428 agreement of Aztec and two other city-states – By early 1500s, Aztecs have large empire and rule 5–15 million people – Power comes from tribute resulting from conquests Nobles Rule Aztec Society – Noble class—military leaders, officials, priests—rules Aztec society – Nobles own vast estates, live life of wealth and luxury – Commoners: merchants, artisans, soldiers, farmers – Lowest class: enslaved people – Emperor’s power is absolute, lives in palace, is revered Tenochtitlán: A Planned City – Extraordinary Urban Center Causeways connect island city to mainland areas Canals enable people to carry goods to city and its huge main market Chinampas, floating islands, used to grow crops Central area has palaces, temples, government buildings

15. Religion Rules Aztec Life Many Gods – Religion includes 1,000 gods, many adopted from other peoples Religious Practices – Center of religion is public ceremonies to win gods’ favor – Many religious festivals throughout year Sacrifices for the Sun God – Most important rituals are for sun god, Huitzilopochtli – He needs human sacrifices to be strong – Aztecs engage in war to provide captives for these sacrifices A New Ruler – In 1502, Montezuma II becomes emperor; he calls for more tribute – These sacrifices lead to revolt in outlying areas – Emperor tries to make life easier, but Aztecs worry about future – Soon after, Spanish arrive

16. The Inca Create a Mountain Empire The Inca Build an Empire Incan Beginnings – Inca live first in high plateau of Andes Mountains – By 1200s, they have a kingdom in Valley of Cuzco – Inca believe that their ruler is descended from sun god, Inti Pachacuti Builds an Empire – Pachacuti, a powerful and ambitious emperor, takes control in 1438 – Under Pachacuti, Inca conquer lands holding 16 million people – Inca use diplomacy and military force to achieve conquests Organized Rule – Inca divide conquered lands into smaller units to govern easily – Make Quechua official language of entire empire Incan Cities Show Government Presence – Inca build cities with same architecture for government buildings – Capital is Cuzco, which has temples, plazas, palaces – Inca are very skilled builders

17. Incan Government Creates Unity Incan Government – Inca government controls economy and society – Use ayllu—extended family group—to control how people live, work – Divides society into groups of 10; 100; 1,000; 10,000 – Chain of command stretches from central government to smallest unit – Demands mita—requirement that people work for state – Cares for the aged and disabled Public Works Projects – Government creates public works, including 14,000-mile road network – Runners carry messages along the roads to different places Government Record-Keeping – Inca do not develop system of writing – Use quipu—set of knotted strings—as accounting device – Might also have had elaborate two-calendar system

18. Religion Supports the State Inca Gods – Inca have fewer gods than Aztecs – Creator god and sun god are most important Religious Practices – Priests draft young women to assist in ceremonies – Some young men also become specialized religious workers Great Cities – Cuzco has magnificent Temple of the Sun decorated in gold – Other cities might have had religious importance as well Problems Arise – In early 1500s, Inca Empire reaches its height under Huayna Capac – Capac dies, perhaps of smallpox, while touring newly conquered Ecuador – In 1520s, his sons Atahualpa and Huascar split empire – Atahualpa wants control of whole empire and begins civil war – This war weakens Inca state just before Spanish arrive