1. Chapter 7
Intellectual and Cognitive Functioning: Intelligence Testing and Neuropsychological Assessment

2. Introduction We will examine how our cognitive processes function
Two aspects:
Intellectual Functioning and Intelligence Testing
Neuropsychological Assessment
Changes in Brain Function

3. Brief History of Intelligence Testing
First test: pioneered by Alfred Binet and Theophile Simon
Revised by Lewis Terman
Over years, many new models of intelligence defined
Many new intelligence tests created based on the models

4. Definition of Intelligence Testing
Intelligence testing: A subset of intellectual and cognitive functioning that assesses a broad range of cognitive capabilities that generally results in an IQ.
Purposes:
To assist in determining giftedness
To assess mental retardation
To identify certain types of learning disabilities
To assess intellectual ability following an accident, the onset of dementia, substance abuse, disease processes, and trauma to the brain
As part of admissions process to certain private schools
As part of a personality assessment battery to aid in understanding the whole

5. Models of Intelligence
Edward Spearman’s ( ) two-factor approach:
General factor (g) and specific factor(s).
“Weight” of g varied as a function of what was being measured.
E.g., ratio of general intelligence (g) to specific talent for music (s) was 1 to 4.

6. Models of Intelligence (Cont’d)
Thurstone’s Multifactor Approach
Seven primary mental abilities:
verbal meaning
number ability
word fluency
perception speed
spatial ability
reasoning
memory

7. Models of Intelligence (Cont’d)
Vernon’s Hierarchal Model of Intelligence
Vernon’s top level is like Spearman’s (g)
Second level has: “v:ed” for verbal and educational abilities, and “k:m” which represents mechanical- spatial-practical abilities.
Third level is comprised of minor group factors.
Fourth level is made of specific factors.
See Figure 7.1, p. 143

8. Models of Intelligence (Cont’d)
Guilford’s Multifactor/Multi-dimensional Model
Three-dimensional model of cognitive ability:
operations, or the general intellectual processes we use in understanding,
contents, or what we use to perform our thinking process, and
product, how we apply our operations to our content
See Figure 7.2, p. 143

9. Models of Intelligence (Cont’d)
Cattell’s Fluid and Crystal Intelligence
Fluid gf intelligence: The culturally free portion of intelligence with which we are innately born.
Crystallized intelligence (gc): Acquired as we learn, and affected by our experiences, schooling, culture, and motivation.
Crystallized intelligence generally increase with age and fluid intelligence tends to slightly decline as we age.
See Figure 7.3, p. 144

10. Models of Intelligence (Cont’d)
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Developmental model.
Stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
Two major concepts:
Assimilation: incorporating new stimuli or information into existing cognitive structures.
Accommodation: creating new cognitive structures and/or behaviors from new stimuli.

11. Models of Intelligence (Cont’d)
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Based on research of brain-damaged individuals, and literature on the brain, evolution, genetics, psychology and anthropology
Nine identified intelligences:
1. Verbal-Linguistic  Interpersonal Intelligence
2. Mathematical-Logical  Intrapersonal Intelligence
3. Musical 8. Naturalist
4. Visual-Spatial 9. Existential Intelligence
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic (not yet confirmed)
Says all humans have different amounts
Theory is revolutionary, not mainstream.

12. Models of Intelligence (Cont’d)
SEE TABLE 7.1 TO COMPARE ALL THE MODELS (p. 147)

13. Intelligence Testing
To some degree, theories of intelligence are the basis for intelligence tests.
Traditional intelligence tests measure intelligence based on traditional constructs (e.g., “g” and “s”) as opposed to Gardner’s model.
Most prominent intelligence tests:
Stanford-Binet
The three Wechsler Scales of Intelligence

14. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
Dates back to original work of Binet in 1904.
Takes 45 to 60 minutes.
Ages 2 to 90+ year olds.
Uses routing test, to help determine basal age. Then uses ceiling age.
Measures verbal and nonverbal intelligence across five factors: fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory.
Yields a Full Scale IQ
See Table 7.2, p. 149

15. Stanford-Binet (Cont’d)
Discrepancies between verbal and nonverbal scores can be an indication of a learning disability
Reliability: For Full-Scale IQ =
Correlates highly with other intelligence tests.
SB5 uses SD of 15, M = 100.
See Profile Sheet, Fig. 7.4, p. 150

16. Weschler Scales of Intelligence
WAIS-IV (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) 16–90.
WISC-IV (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) 6–16.
WPPSI-III (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence), yrs. and 3 months.
Similar tests: Downward extensions of each other.
Useful in assessing general cognitive functioning, mental retardation, giftedness, and learning problems

17. The WISC-IV (as an example of all Wechsler Tests)
Contains 15 subtests (see Table 7.3), p. 152
The 15 subtests provide a Full Scale IQ and four additional composite score indexes (see Table 7.4, p. 153):
Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)
Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)
Processing Speed Index (PSI)
Working Memory Index (WMI)

18. WISC-IV (Cont’d) Uses Mean of 100, SD of 15 for FSIQ
Uses Mean of 10, SD of 3 for subscales
See Profile: Fig. 7.5, p. 153

19. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
Individually administered test of cognitive ability for ages 3 to 18.
Subtests and scoring allows for a choice, which one option is Cattell’s model of fluid and crystallized intelligence.
Examines visual processing, fluid reasoning, and short-term and long-term memory.
Uses Mean of 100, SD of 15
Good reliability and validity.

20. Nonverbal Intelligence Tests
Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (CTONI)
6.0 through 18 and 11 months
Six subtests: pictorial analogies, geometric analogies, pictorial categories, geometric categories, pictorial sequences, geometric sequences
High reliability
Criterion validity not impressive (only correlates with two subtest of WISC-III

21. Nonverbal Intelligence Tests
The Universal Intelligence Test (UNIT)
Ages 5-17
Six subtests: symbolic memory, cube design, spatial memory, analogic reasoning, object memory, and reasoning
Predicts fairly well with WISC-III
Predicts moderately with Woodcock Johnson- Revised broad knowledge scale

22. A Brief History of Neuropsychological Assessment
Observations of behavioral changes following head injuries found in 5,000 year-old Egyptian medical documents
WWI: Interest in brain trauma
Since 1950s: Saw that same type of brain injury could affect people differently
More recently: imaging devices add to our knowledge base
Assessment still is important, though: helps us understand “brain-behavior” relationships

23. Defining Neuropsychological Assessment
As a diagnostic tool used to identify the root of a condition and the extent of the brain damage
To measure change in an individual’s functioning (e.g., cognitive ability, movement, reaction time)
To compare changes in cognitive or functional status to others within the normative sample
To provide specific rehabilitation treatment and planning guidelines for individuals and families
To provide specific guidelines for educational planning in the schools

24. Methods of Neuropsychological Assessment
Fixed Battery Approach:
Involves the rigid and standardized administration of a uniform group of instruments
All individuals needing assessment get same set of tests
Two common tests:
Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery
Halsteid-Reitan Battery

25. Methods of Neuropsychological Assessment
Halsted-Reitan Battery
Developed in 1950s by Halstead modified by his grad student Reitan
Two children versions exist
Provides cutoff scores or index of impairment
Discriminates brain-damaged from “normals”
Takes 5-6 hours
Eight core tests (see p )
Unfortunately, test does not adequately provide psychometric information regarding validity, reliability, and norming

26. Methods of Neuropsychological Assessment
Flexible Battery Approach and the Boston Process Approach (BPA)
Types of test dictated by referral questions
Clinicians will utilize different tests
BPA requires observation of test-taker during test administration
Strong emphasis on qualitative information (how test-taker answers questions)
This approach criticized because of their limited psychometric data
Often not used in court because it is “unscientific”

27. The Role of Helpers in the Assessment of Intelligence and Cognitive Functioning
The assessment of intelligence and neurological impairment often given in:
School psychology programs
Doctoral programs in counseling, clinical, and clinical neuropsychology
Others can obtain training, usually through workshops or courses on their own
With such training, individuals can provide a large array of services
Those who do not have such training, should know some basis so they know when to refer

28. Final Thoughts on The Assessment of Intellectual and Cognitive Functioning
Abuse of intelligence testing and cognitive functioning has occurred:
Used to maintain status quo (e.g., brighter people are better than those who have musical ability).
Miscalculation intelligence of minorities.
Over-classification of individuals who are learning disabled.
Misguided tool to defend racial differences of ability
Means to differentiate social classes.
Thus, conclusions should be done knowing carefully and wisely knowing the “whole person” as well as the societal issues that are involved