1. 4
The Human Body in Health and Disease

2. Multimedia Directory Slide 57 PET Scan Video Slide 60 MRI Video
Slide 63 Ultrasound Video

3. Learning Objectives
Define and spell the word parts used to create terms for the human body.
Identify the building blocks, organ systems, and cavities of the body.
Identify the anatomical planes, regions, and directional terms used to describe areas of the body.

4. Learning Objectives (cont.)
Break down and define the important terms associated with the anatomy and physiology of the human body.
Define the introductory terms associated with medical terminology.
Identify the five major diagnostic imaging procedures.

5. Word Parts abdomin/o anter/o brachi/o cardi/o caud/o cephal/o
abdomin/o = abdomen
anter/o = front
brachi/o = arm
cardi/o = heart
caud/o = tail
cephal/o = head

6. Word Parts (cont.) cervic/o chondr/i cran/o, crani/o cyt/o dist/o
dors/o
cervic/o = neck
chondr/i = gristle, cartilage
cran/o, crani/o = skull
cyt/o = cell
dist/o = distant
dors/o = back

7. Word Parts (cont.) femor/o gastr/o glute/o hom/o, home/o ili/o
femor/o = thigh
gastr/o = stomach
glute/o = buttock
hom/o, home/o = same
ili/o = groin, hip, flank

8. Word Parts (cont.) infer/o inguin/o later/o lumb/o medi/o
infer/o = below
inguin/o = groin
later/o = side
lumb/o = loin, lower back
medi/o = middle

9. Word Parts (cont.) organ/o pelv/o physi/o pleur/o poster/o proxim/o
organ/o = tool
pelv/o = bowl, basin
physi/o = nature
pleur/o = pleura, rib
poster/o = back
proxim/o = near

10. Word Parts (cont.) super/o thorac/o tom/o umbilic/o ventr/o
super/o = above
thorac/o = chest, thorax
tom/o = to cut
umbilic/o = navel, umbilicus
ventr/o = belly

11. Anatomy and Physiology
Functions of the body
Homeostasis
Anatomy: The study of body structure
Physiology: The study of the nature of living things and is concerned with body functions
Functions of the body: Work to keep the body alive and as healthy as possible. The goal of these functions is to keep the internal body in a constant, stable state despite changes in the world around us
Homeostasis: The process of maintaining internal stability

12. Anatomy and Physiology (cont.)
The Building Blocks of Body Structure
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Systems
These are the building blocks of body structure:
cells
tissues
organs
systems (will each be explained in the following slides)

13. Figure 4. 1 Building blocks of the body
Figure 4.1 Building blocks of the body. Complexity increases in the direction of the arrow.

14. Anatomy and Physiology (cont.)
Atoms
Molecules
Organelles
Cells
Atoms: The simplest building blocks of the body
Molecules: Atoms that are bound together
Organelles: Molecules that combine to form large, nonliving structures such as parts of cells
Cells: The most basic form of life in the body
Cells can be arranged into similar groups to form the next level, the tissues

15. Anatomy and Physiology (cont.)
Tissues
Four main types of tissues:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
Tissues: Cells arranged into similar groups
The four main types of tissues are
epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous

16. Anatomy and Physiology (cont.)
Organ
Maintains a certain shape
Performs a general function
Examples: stomach, brain, pancreas
Organ: Two or more different tissues combine to form an organ.

17. Anatomy and Physiology (cont.)
System
The body contains 11 systems
Each system performs a general function
System: A group of organs sharing a general function
The body contains 11 systems, each performing a specific general function

18. Table 4.1 Systems of the Body
Cardiovascular system: Consists of the heart, arteries, veins, and blood; transports vital substances throughout the body, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, enzymes, hormones, nutrients, and nitrogen-containing waste materials; helps protect from infection; helps regulate body temperature.
Table 4.1 Systems of the Body

19. Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body
Lymphatic system: Consists of a network of tubes that carry lymph fluid through the body; includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland, and tonsils; removes unwanted substances and recycles fluid to blood; plays an important role in the protection against infection.
Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body

20. Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body
Respiratory system: Consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs; major function is bringing oxygen from the external environment to the bloodstream and removing carbon dioxide from the bloodstream out to the external environment.
Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body

21. Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body
Digestive system: Consists of the mouth, pharynx, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, and large intestine; breaks down food into small particles for absorption into the bloodstream and transportation to body cells for nourishment.
Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body

22. Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body
Urinary system: Contains the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra; processes blood by extracting waste materials and producing urine; helps regulate blood pressure; stimulates new red blood cell formation in the bone marrow; maintains the homeostasis of water-and-salt balance within the body.
Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body

23. Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body
Female reproductive system: Consists of the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, and mammary glands; provides for production of new individuals; the only system in which the organs differ significantly between the two sexes.
Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body

24. Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body
Male reproductive system: Contains the testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, bulbourethral glands, penis, and scrotum; provides for production of new individuals; the only system in which the organs differ significantly between the two sexes.
Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body

25. Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body
Nervous system: Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special sensory organs; controls homeostasis by sensing changes in the environment, integrating information, and initiating body responses; provides a method of communication between the body and the external environment.
Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body

26. Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body
Endocrine system: Consists of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreatic islets, gonads (testes and ovaries), pineal gland, and thymus gland; controls homeostasis by releasing hormones for their distribution in the bloodstream, which alters body functions.
Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body

27. Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body
Muscular system: Composed of approximately 500 individual muscles that are attached to bones; includes attached connective tissues, blood vessels, and nerves; composed primarily of skeletal muscle; allows and controls movement of body parts.
Skeletal system: Forms the body frame; consists of bones, joints, and associated connective tissues; provides protection by forming a hard barrier around soft organs; permits movement by providing attachment sites for muscles; forms blood cells within the bone marrow; stores mineral salts such as calcium.
Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body

28. Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body
Integumentary system: Includes the skin hair and hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, nails, and sensory receptors. Protects against loss of body fluids; protects from physical injury or ultraviolet light; protects from invasion by microorganisms.
Table 4.1 (continued) Systems of the Body

29. Directional Terms Directional terms Anatomical position
Most directional terms each include one word root and one suffix.
Suffixes are either -ior or -al
Directional terms: Words used to describe the relative location of the body or its parts. They are always based on the anatomical position, regardless of the actual body position of the individual.
Anatomical position: An erect posture with the face forward, arms at the sides, palms of the hands facing forward, and legs together with the feet pointing forward.
The most commonly used directional terms each include one word root and one suffix. The suffixes are either -ior or -al which both mean “pertaining to.”

30. Word Roots Involving Direction
super
infer
anter
poster
medi
super = above
infer = below
anter = front
poster = back
medi = middle

31. Word Roots Involving Direction (cont.)
later
proxim
dist
ventr
dors
caud
later = side
proxim = near
dist = distant
ventr = belly
dors = back
caud = tail

32. Directional Terms Superior Inferior Anterior (ventral)
Posterior (dorsal)
Superior: Toward the head end or upper part of the body
Inferior: Away from the head end or toward the lower part of the body
Anterior (ventral): Toward the front or belly side
Posterior (dorsal): Toward the back

33. Directional Terms (cont.)
Medial
Lateral
Superficial
Deep
Proximal
Distal
Medial: Toward the midline, which is an imaginary vertical line down the middle of the body
Lateral: Toward the side
Superficial: External; toward the body surface
Deep: internal; Inward from the surface of the body
Proximal: Toward the origin of attachment to the trunk
Distal: Away from the origin of attachment to the trunk

34. Planes Dividing the Body
Frontal or coronal plane
Sagittal plane
Transverse plane
Plane: An imaginary flat field that is used as a point of reference for viewing three-dimensional objects
Frontal or coronal plane: A vertical plane passing through the body from side to side, dividing the body into anterior and posterior portions
Sagittal plane: A vertical plane dividing the body into right and left portions
Transverse plane: A horizontal plane dividing the body into superior and inferior portions

35. Figure Body planes

36. Regions of the Body Regions of the Body Head Neck Upper appendages
Trunk
Lower appendages
Head: Subdivides into the face and the cranium
Neck: Subdivides into the anterior neck and the posterior neck
Trunk: Ssubdivides into the thorax, the abdomen, the pelvis, and the back
Upper appendages: The shoulder, axilla (armpit), brachium (upper arm), elbow, antebrachium (forearm), carpus (wrist), manus (hand), and digits (fingers)
Lower appendages: The gluteus (buttock), femorus (thigh), knee, crus (leg), tarsus (ankle), pes (foot), and digits (toes)

37. Regions of the Body (cont.)
Regions may be broken down further such as the abdominal region within the trunk.
Abdominal region can be broken down in two ways – abdominal regions and abdominal quadrants
Regions of the body: Areas that have been named to give medical workers the ability to communicate possible problems that may be located in a specific area
Head
Neck
Upper appendages
Trunk
Lower appendages
Within these areas are certain subdivisions.
Abdominal region: The area of the abdomen

38. Regions of the Body (cont.)
Abdominal Regions
Epigastric region
Hypochondriac regions
Umbilical region
Lumbar regions
Hypogastric region
Iliac regions
Epigastric region: The area above the stomach
[Epigastric – (epi- –above) (gastr/o – stomach) (-ic – pertaining to)]
Hypochondriac regions: The area of the abdomen below the ribs (located on either side of the epigastric region)
Umbilical region: The area of the abdomen near the navel
Lumbar regions: The areas of the abdomen near the loins (located on either side of the umbilical region)
Hypogastric: The area below the stomach
Iliac regions: The areas of the abdomen near the groin and hips (located on either side of the hypogastric region)

39. Figure 4.3 The abdomen and abdominal regions

40. Abdominal Quadrants Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
Right lower quadrant (RLQ)
Left lower quadrant (LLQ)
Abdominal Quadrants:
Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
Right lower quadrant (RLQ)
Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

41. Anatomical Terms (cont.)
Body as a Whole
Central trunk, or torso
Appendages, or limbs
Cavities
Viscera
The body’s basic design consists of a central trunk or torso, and attached appendages or limbs.
Appendages: Head, arms, legs
Cavities: Nonsolid structures; spaces in the head and trunk that are partially filled with organs, connecting structures, and fluids
Viscera: Internal contents of cavities

42. Body Cavities Dorsal cavity Cranial cavity Spinal (vertebral) cavity
Dorsal cavity: One of two main body cavities; contains the cranial cavity and the spinal (vertebral) cavity
Cranial cavity: Located within the dorsal cavity; houses the brain
Spinal (vertebral) cavity: Located within the dorsal cavity; contains the spinal cord

43. Figure Body cavities

44. Body Cavities (cont.) Ventral cavity Thoracic cavity
Pericardial cavity
Pleural cavities
Mediastinum
Ventral cavity: One of two main body cavities; contains the thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
Thoracic cavity: Located within the ventral cavity superior to the diaphragm
Pericardial cavity: Located within the thoracic cavity; houses the heart
Pleural cavities: Located within the thoracic cavity; houses the lungs
Mediastinum: The area between the two lungs along the midline deep to the breastbone; contains the heart, the large blood vessels above the heart, and the thymus gland

45. Body Cavities (cont.) Ventral cavity Diaphragm Abdominopelvic cavity
Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
Diaphragm: Muscular partition dividing the ventral cavity into an upper and lower cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity: Located within the ventral cavity inferior to the diaphragm
[Abdominopelvic – (abdomin/o – abdomen) (pelv/o – pelvis) (-ic – pertaining to)]
Abdominal cavity: Located within the abdominopelvic cavity; contains the liver, stomach, pancreas, spleen, and most of the small and large intestines
Pelvic cavity: Located within the abdominopelvic cavity: contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and parts of the small and large intestines

46. Medical Terms of the Human Body
Disease
Pathology
Pathologist
Diagnosis
Symptom
Disease: A state of the body in which homeostasis has faltered due to any cause
Pathology: The study of disease
Pathologist: A physician who specializes in the study of disease
Diagnosis: Identification of an illness
Symptom: Sensations, or the loss of sensations, experienced by a patient that deviate from the normal, healthy state. Examples are pain, heat, cold, or pressure; numbness or loss of appetite

47. Medical Terms of the Human Body (cont.)
Sign
Acute
Chronic
Sign: An abnormality that is discoverable by an objective examination; for example, a thermometer indicating the presence of a fever or a blood pressure reading indicating elevated blood pressure.
Acute: Adjective describing a disease of short duration
Chronic: Adjective describing a disease of long duration

48. Medical Terms of the Human Body (cont.)
Infection
Trauma
Prognosis
Infection: The multiplication of parasitic organisms within the body
Trauma: A physical injury
Prognosis: Predicting the probable course of a disease and its probable outcome

49. Diagnostic Imaging Diagnostic Imaging Endoscopy CT scan PET scan MRI
Ultrasound
Diagnostic Imaging: Noninvasive procedures using instruments to observe the internal structure and functions of the body without the need for open surgical procedures. Listed below are the five major types of diagnostic imaging.
Endoscopy
CT scan
PET scan
MRI
Ultrasound

50. Endoscopy Endoscope Views internal anatomy on a monitor
May also contain surgical attachments that allow the physician to manipulate internal structures
Endoscopy: Process involving the use of an endoscope that when inserted into the patient helps the physician to view that patient’s internal anatomy on a monitor
Endoscope: A long, flexible tube with a camera and possibly surgical instruments attached to the end
The end of the tube may also contain surgical attachments that allow the physician to manipulate internal structures.

51. Figure 4.5 Endoscopy Source: Reflekta/Shutterstock

52. CT Scan Computed Tomography Scanning Can scan from multiple angles
Useful to view cross-sectional images of organs
Standard evaluation of trauma to most body areas
CT scan (Computed tomography scanning): Use of x-rays and computer enhancement to produce a 3-dimensional image of internal body structures
Can scan from multiple angles
Useful to view cross-sectional images of organs – “slices”
Standard evaluation of trauma to most body areas

53. Figure 4.6 CT scan Source: Linda Bartlett/National Cancer Institute.

54. PET Scans Positron emission tomography
The radioactive substance is combined with a metabolically important material and then inhaled or injected into the patient
The metabolic activity of an organ is detected by the PET scan based on the particles being released by the organ
PET scan (positron emission tomography): Use of computers and radioactive substances to examine the metabolic activity of various parts of the body
The radioactive substance is combined with a metabolically important material and then inhaled or injected into the patient.
The metabolic activity of an organ is detected by the PET scan based on the particles being released by the organ.

55. Figure 4.7a PET scan Source: Grieze/Dreamstime.com

56. Figure 4.7b PET scan Source: ballemans./Shutterstock

57. Click here to view a video on the topic of PET scans.
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58. MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
Can distinguish between structures based on the water content
Offers the clearest, most complete images of internal anatomy
Can diagnose many forms of cancer, joint disease, and trauma
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): Instrument uses magnets that detect hydrogen atoms and sends the information to be analyzed by a computer, producing a 3-D image
Can distinguish between structures based on the water content
Offers the clearest, most complete images of internal anatomy
Can diagnose many forms of cancer, joint disease, and trauma

59. Figure 4.8 MRI Source: Jupiterimages/Polka Dot/Thinkstock

60. Click here to view an video on the topic of MRI.
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61. Ultrasound Imaging Ultrasound imaging, or sonography
Major body systems in which ultrasound is used:
Obstetrics and gynecology – fetal, uterine, breast, ovarian
Cardiology – heart, blood flow through vessels
Urology – blood flow through the kidneys, detecting prostate cancer, seeing kidney stones
Ultrasound imaging or sonography: Involves the pulsation of harmless sound waves through a body region
As the waves travel through the tissues, they produce echoes that are collected and analyzed by a computer, which then constructs a sectional image that outlines the internal body structures.
Major body systems in which ultrasound is used:
Obstetrics and gynecology – fetal, uterine, breast, ovarian
Cardiology – heart, blood flow through vessels
Urology – blood flow through the kidneys, detecting prostate cancer, seeing kidney stones

62. Figure 4.9 Ultrasound imaging Source: Photodisc/Thinkstock

63. Click here to view a video on the topic of ultrasound.
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64. Combining Form Quiz dors/o a. front anter/o b. below proxim/o c. back
super/o d. above
infer/o e. near
dors/o answer is c.
anter/o answer is a.
proxim/o answer is e.
super/o answer is d.
infer/o answer is b.