1. Alchohol Use methanol or ethanol as a fuel
Already gone over ethanol
Methanol is already in use at Indy 500 race
Proven that no significant loss of performance is experienced (though they are in the process of switching to ethanol)
About ½ the energy content of gasoline
Produces only CO2 and water
Some nitrogen oxides produced in the engine
Can be manufactured from re-newable sources (biomass for example)
Technologies exist now.

2. Disadvantages Very dangerous CO2 is a greenhouse gas
Burns with no visible flame-needs a colorant added
Fumes are toxic
CO2 is a greenhouse gas
Currently made mostly from natural gas-a non-renewable fossil fuel
Possibly more corrosive than ethanol to engine parts

3. Use in liquid fuel cells
Another use is as a input to a liquid feed fuel cell
In these cells, Methanol replaces hydrogen
Methanol has a much higher energy density and is easier to store than H
Current methanol fuel cells produce power too low for vehicles, but can be used in cell phones, laptops etc
Advantage is that they store lots of power in a small space, which they over a long period of time

4. Environmental effects of energy production
All of our energy producing mechanisms have some effect on the environment
Production of waste products pollutes air, water and ground
Disruptions to local ecosystems
Our job is to understand and mitigate these effects to the best of our ability
Philosophy : If it hurts (the environment) when you do that, don’t do that!

5. Air pollution If its in the air, its in your body
Components of the Earth’s Atmosphere:
Nitrogen %
Oxygen %
Argon %
Also small amounts of Neon, Helium, Krypton,& Hydrogen
In addition, there are compounds whose concentrations vary with height: water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, carbon monoxide, ozone, ammonia
These are naturally occurring concentrations, any additional influx or destruction of these compounds via human beings alters the system.

6. Profile of the Earth’s atmosphere

7. Atmospheric profile Exosphere
From 500–1,000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–3,300,000 ft) up to 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft), contain free-moving particles that may migrate into and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.
Exobase
Also known as the 'critical level', it is the lower boundary of the exosphere.
Ionosphere
The part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 620 mi; 160,000 to 3,300,000 ft) and typically overlaps both the exosphere and the thermosphere. It plays an important part in atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. Because of its charged particles, it has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on the Earth. It is responsible for auroras.
Thermopause
The boundary above the thermosphere, it varies in height from 500–1,000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–3,300,000 ft).

8. Atmospheric profile Thermosphere
From 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft) to over 640 km (400 mi; 2,100,000 ft), temperature increasing with height. Although the temperature can rise to 1,500 °C (2,730 °F), a person would not feel warm because of the extremely low pressure. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 320 and 380 km (200 and 240 mi).
Mesopause
The temperature minimum at the boundary between the thermosphere and the mesosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth, with a temperature of −100 °C (−148.0 °F; K).
Mesosphere
From the Greek word meaning middle. The mesosphere extends from about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the range of 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft). Temperature decreases with height, reaching −100 °C (−148.0 °F; K) in the upper mesosphere. This is also where most meteors burn up when entering the atmosphere.

9. Atmospheric profile
Stratopause The boundary between the mesosphere and the stratosphere, typically 50 to 55
Stratosphere
From the Latin word "stratus" meaning spreading out. The stratosphere extends from the troposphere's 7–17 km (4.3–11 mi; 23,000–56,000 ft) range to about 51 km (32 mi; 170,000 ft). Temperature increases with height. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, the part of the Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high concentrations of ozone. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from approximately 15–35 km above Earth's surface, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
Ozone Layer
Though part of the Stratosphere, the ozone layer is considered as a layer of the Earth's atmosphere in itself because its physical and chemical composition is far different from the Stratosphere. Ozone (O3) in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O2), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O2 to create O3. O3 is unstable (although, in the stratosphere, long-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O2 and an atom of atomic oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone-oxygen cycle. This occurs in the ozone layer, the region from about 10 to 50 km (33,000 to 160,000 ft) above Earth's surface. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.

10. Atmospheric profile Tropopause
The boundary between the stratosphere and troposphere.
Troposphere
From the Greek word meaning to turn or change. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere; it begins at the surface and extends to between 7 km (23,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to weather factors. The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.
The average temperature of the atmosphere at the surface of Earth is 20 °C (68 °F; 293 K).[1][2]

11. Thermal inversions and smog
The temperature of the atmosphere decreases up to about 10,000 ft
So warm air will naturally rise, including warm polluted air. Which means pollution from cars and factories should rise up into the atmosphere and be disperse where it causes no immediate effects on people
Unless a condition occurs which inhibits the upward movement of warm air

12. Adiabatic Lapse rate
The name given to the temperature-altitude relationship in the lower atmosphere
Adiabatic means no energy is gained or loss by a volume of gas
Lapse means the temperature decreases with increasing altitude
So warm air will rise and cool at a specific rate. It will not exchange energy with the surrounding air and will expand because the air pressure surrounding it decreases as it rises.

13. ALR and inversions
Now what happens if the meteorological conditions change the temperature height profile?
If the temperature decrease faster with height than the ALR, then warm air rises indefinitely in to the atmosphere. This provides good mixing and naturally removes pollutants.
If the temperature increases with height, warm air and the pollution in it is trapped near the surface. This is called a temperature inversion.
Pollutants are trapped near the surface-causes smog

14. SMOG
Smoky Fog
First coined by Dr. Henry Antoine Des Voeux in his 1905 paper, "Fog and Smoke”, in which he was describing the fog seen in London, which had different properties than the fog seen in the English countryside.
Classic smog-primarily composed of particulates and sulfur oxides from coal burning-London famous for its thick smogs or peasoupers as they are called.
Immortalized in literature and art

15. Smog
Photochemical smog-more modern fog, results from the interaction of the sun and automobile emissions.
Mixture includes:
Carbon monoxide
nitrogen oxides, such as nitrogen dioxide
tropospheric ozone
volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN)
aldehydes (R'O)

16. Carbon monoxide Most serious of all the pollutants
Formed from the incomplete combustion of carbon
Prime source is the gasoline fuel internal combustion engine
Dangerous gas-colorless and ordorless
It combines with hemoglobin in the bloodstream
Hemoglobin is a protein in the bloodstream that carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues
CO is more likely to combines with hemoglobin than oxygen, so when it gets in the blood stream it inhibits oxygen flow
Causes suffocation

17. Concentration and exposure
Like many pollutants, the effect of CO on a person is a function of both the concentration and exposure level
Concentration is describe by ppm- parts per million
PPM-Denotes one part per 1,000,000 parts, one part in 106, and a value of 1 × 10–6. This is equivalent to one drop of water diluted into 50 liters (roughly the fuel tank capacity of a compact car), or one second of time in approximately 11½ days.
These are units of proportionality
So for CO, after 10 hours
100ppm you have a headaches and are unable to think clearly
300ppm nausea and loss of consciousness
600 ppm death
If the concentration is 1000 ppm, loss of consciousness occurs in about 1 hours and death in 4
Not just a problem from cars, CO is also released in in home gas appliances
Poses an increasing danger as homes are becoming more environmentally sealed to save energy
Gas appliances need proper ventilation

18. Controls on CO and other emissions
Environmental Protection Agency
Government agency that sets air quality standards
Standards are called the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Set by the Clean Air Act of 1970, and amended in 1990.
Clear Skies Act-proposed by the Bush administration in 2003 not passed
Attempt to limit sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and mercury emissions from power plants
Criticized as weakening the clean air act by:
Weakens the current cap on nitrogen oxide pollution levels from 1.25 million tons to 2.1 million tons, allowing 68 % more NOx pollution.
Delays the improvement of sulfur dioxide (SO2) pollution levels compared to the Clean Air Act requirements.
Delays enforcement of smog-and-soot pollution standards until 2015.

19. Other pollutants: Nitrogen oxides
Reddish brown gas that is responsible for the color of smog
Produced in internal combustion engines and coal plants
Can react with water vapor to produce nitric acid-leads to acid rain (we will come back to this)
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with sunlight to produce nitrogen oxide and oxygen
This oxygen reactions with molecular oxygen to produce ozone
This ozone can react with nitrogen oxide and produce nitrogen dioxide and molecular oxygen
At 0.5 ppm it can be smelled, 5 ppm it effects the respiratory system, ppm lung liver and heart damage can occur

20. Other pollutants-hydrocarbons
Recall hydrocarbons are compounds made of carbon and hydrogen
Released into the atmosphere via:
Auto exhaust
Evaporation of gasoline in the process of its refinement, productions and handling
Chemical manufacturing
Manufacturing of dry cleaning fluids, ink and paint manufacturing releases organic solvents
Industrial dryers, ovens and incineration of materials
Hydrocarbons combine with ozone (formed from the nitrogen dioxide) to form complex molecules of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon called peroxyacyl nitrates or PANs.

21. Effects of Photochemical smog
PANs result in eye irritation, damage to vegetation and skin cancer
Aggravates respiratory conditions
Suggestions that is results in lung cancer and pulmonary disease
Plant diseases
Smog injury-cells on the upper part of the leaf collapse. The leaf looks water soaked
Grape stipple-blotched appearance of leaves, particularly tobacco or grape leaves
Oxidants cause cracking and disintegration of stretched rubber, paints and fabrics loose their color and strength
Visibility issues

22. Sulfur dioxide Colorless, nonflammable gas
Produced in the burning of fossil fuels
Coal and oil burning plants
Smelting operations
Natural sources include decay of organic matter
There are natural processes that remove it from the atmosphere, these include dry deposition (random air motions deposit the sulfur on the ground) , plant uptake and precipitation

23. Effects of sulfur dioxide
Respiratory illness-including lung cancer
Cardiovascular illness
Marble, limestone and mortar dissolved
Protective coatings on metal loose their protective ability
Plant damage
Note-effects are hard to distinguish from the effects of sulfuric acid, but the sulfur dioxide helps to form sulfuric acid in the environment

24. Mitigation For the coal fired plants:
Remove the sulfur before the coal is burned-various methods- expensive
Use low sulfur content coal
May have to give up energy content as low sulfur coal often has a lower energy content when burned
Control sulfur dioxide emission after the coal is burned
For petroleum plants:
Hydrodesulfurization is used.

25. Earth Day April 22 of each year
Designed as a day to become aware of and appreciate the Earth’s environment
Started in reaction to population growth and overpopulation
Proposed by Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin
First Earth Day, April 22, 1970 is considered the beginning of the modern environmental movement
Designed to be a teach in day at Universities
Protest and rallies against things like oil spills, polluting factories and power plants, raw sewage, toxic dumps, pesticides, freeways, the loss of wilderness, and the extinction of wildlife were held across the nation.
In 2000, focus shifted to global warming and clean energy

26. Particulates or aerosols
Come from lots of natural and man-made sources
Natural sources
Salt from ocean spray
Dust from fields
Volcanic eruptions
Forest fires
It is worth noting that natural sources can often be far worse than man-made sources

27. Particulates or aerosols
Man-made sources
Fly ash from coal combustion
Ash from petroleum, but it occurs at 1/20 coal ash
Iron and steel mills
Cement manufacturing
Burning of wood and other materials
Coal dust from mining of coal (Black Lung)
Measured in terms of the number of micrograms of particulates per cubic meter
Standard is no more than 50 ug/m3 for particles with sizes greater than 10 microns in a year, but this does not account for chemical composition of the particulates

28. Map of particulate matter levels

29. Natural Dust

30. Volcanic eruptions
Eruptions put large amounts of sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid and ash into the stratosphere.
Hydrochloric acid is rained out of the atmosphere
Sulfur dioxide reacts with water and forms sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid condenses, forming aerosols. On the surface of the aerosols, chemical reactions occur which increase levels of chlorine which reacts with nitrogen and causes destruction of ozone in the stratosphere.
This aerosol layer also reflects sunlight, and can cool the atmosphere.