Personality 13. Psychological Science, 3rd Edition Michael Gazzaniga Todd Heatherton Diane Halpern.

Psychological Science, 3rd Edition Michael Gazzaniga Todd Heatherton Diane Halpern

Personality 13

Questions to Consider:
How Have Psychologists Studied Personality? How Is Personality Assessed, and What Does It Predict? What Are the Biological Bases of Personality? How Do We Know Our Own Personalities?

How Have Psychologists Studied Personality?
Psychodynamic Theories Emphasize Unconscious and Dynamic Processes Humanistic Approaches Emphasize Integrated Personal Experience Type and Trait Approaches Describe Behavioral Dispositions Personality Reflects Learning and Cognition

Learning Objectives List the major theorists and concepts associated with four general approaches to the study of personality.

Psychodynamic Theories Emphasize Unconscious and Dynamic Processes
Sigmund Freud developed one of the most influential theories of personality development by observing patients he treated His underlying assumption was that unconscious forces, such as wishes and motives, influence behavior Freud: Students frequently have difficulty understanding why psychologists still learn about Freud or still utilize any of his ideas. One of the strengths of Freud’s theorizing is that it can accommodate a huge range of data – why people do what they do, why people feel what they feel, why people are attracted to one another, and so on. Many critics of Freud’s view argue that this capacity for explaining things comes at a very high price: In order to explain the full range of evidence, the theory has to be incredibly flexible, so flexible that the theory loses its value. Ask students to imagine that they are a psychoanalyst and they have heard a client comment that he truly hates his mother. How would they interpret this animosity? The key here is that students should realize there are many possible interpretations; this is why Freud would resist trying to interpret just a single observation. Any one observation, Freud argued, is on its own ambiguous; interpretation must depend on a broad pattern of evidence. So, what are the options? Students should be able to provide several: perhaps the client is being insightful and really does hate his mother, perhaps the client is being defensive and (via denial) actually loves his mother, perhaps the client is being defensive and actually means that he thinks his mother hates him, or perhaps the client is defending himself against the thought of who he really hates. Students should see the problems with this level of flexibility. Then ask students what they make of Freud’s further argument that any individual slip of the tongue, dream, or symptom is open to many interpretations but once one has a collection of observations, there will be only one interpretation that “works” in making sense of all of them. Do students find this persuasive? As a way to get students thinking about this issue, try the following example. Tell them you are thinking of a series of numbers, and the series begins 1, 2. What is the next number in the series? The answer might be 3, if the pattern here is to add one each time. The answer might be 4, if the pattern is to double each time. The answer might be five, if the pattern is to square the number and then add one. The answer might be 9, if the pattern is to cube each number and then add one. But now tell students that the series begins 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16. Students are likely to offer 22 as the next number, with the pattern being to each time add a number that is one bigger than the number you added last time. At this point, note that students seem to be supporting Freud inasmuch as the ambiguity seems to be reduced when there are more data.

Sigmund Freud theorized that mental activity occurred in these three zones. He believed that much of human behavior was influenced by unconscious processes.

There are three major components of Freud’s theory: Topographical model Conscious, unconscious, preconscious Development of sexual instincts Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital psychosexual stages

Structural model Id, ego, superego Defense mechanisms were described as strategies used by the ego to cope with the anxiety caused by conflicts between the id and the superego

Psychodynamic theory since Freud: Neo-Freudians (Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney) all modified aspects of Freud’s original theory Many later theorists rejected Freud’s emphasis on sexuality in favor of a focus on social interactions leading to object relations theory Many psychologists have abandoned psychodynamic theories due to the lack of scientifically verifiable hypotheses Carl Jung and the Collective Unconscious: Students are fascinated by the theories of Carl Jung and discussion of the collective unconscious or archetypes make an excellent addition to the lecture. Additional information about Jung’s ideas of the collective unconscious may be found at:

Humanistic Approaches Emphasize Integrated Personal Experience
Humanistic approaches to personality: Emphasize subjective personal experience and belief systems Propose that people seek to fulfill their human potential for personal growth through greater self-understanding Self-actualization At its core, humanism focuses on subjective human experience, or phenomenology, and views each person as inherently good

The two most well-known humanistic psychologists are Maslow and Rogers Abraham Maslow Theory of motivation The text introduces the Humanistic theories including the concept of self-actualization. Ask students why so few people, according to Maslow, ever reach self-actualization. Hergenhahn and Olson (2007) provide the following explanations: Since self-actualization is at the top of the hierarchy it is the weakest of all of the needs Maslow proposed and, thus, the easiest to impede. Jonah Complex: Maslow believed that we fear and doubt our own abilities. This fear impedes our full development. Cultural environment: The culture in which we are reared imposes restrictions on us to conform. By following these restrictions – conforming to cultural pressures to marry, act “ladylike,” act “like a man” – we are impeding our full development. Childhood experiences: Children from warm, friendly homes, according to Maslow, would be best able to choose experiences leading to personal growth. Excessive control or coddling as well as permissiveness would impede a child’s ability to choose experiences leading to personal growth. Maslow argued for “freedom within limits,” suggesting a balance between permissiveness and regulation.

Carl Rogers Advocated a client-centered approach Focused on creating a warm, supportive, and accepting environment and dealing with clients’ problems and concerns as clients understood them Recommended that parents provide unconditional positive regard to their children, thereby raising fully functional adults

Only recently have psychologists begun using scientific methods to study the positive aspects of humanity Seligman’s research into positive psychology Broaden-and-build theory Positive emotions prompt people to consider novel and creative solutions to their problems May help resilient people cope effectively with setbacks or negative life experiences Positive Psychology: Seligman’s positive psychology has been one of the most influential new movements in psychology. Provide students with more details about this theory. An excellent review of the major concepts of positive psychology may be found at:

Type and Trait Approaches Describe Behavioral Dispositions
Typologies: Discrete categories in which we place people Traits: Behavioral dispositions that endure over time and across situations Personality Types: People often think of personality in terms of certain types. In choosing a romantic partner, for example, we sometimes say things like, “He’s not my type.” Or we use terms that supposedly identify a type – the “nerds,” “emos,” the “jocks,” the “brains.” We even invent labels – “Oh, you know, he’s the Peter Pan type.” Spend a minute inviting the class to list the types they refer to, or have heard others reference. Alternatively, ask students to complete this task in small groups. Chances are it will be relatively easy for students to identify a dozen or so types. Now ask the class (or the groups of students) to consider how useful these types are. What are the limits of these types? If students have difficulty with this task, ask them if they have ever had troubles categorizing people in terms of these broad types: “He’s a jock but he’s also a brain.” Next, ask the class (or groups) if they and their friends always agree about categorizing people in these terms. Does this limit the usefulness of the types or our faith that the types “have things right?” Ask students what the perfect number of types should be. If we need a type for every person, is using types effective?

Implicit personality theory: Personality characteristics go together Allowing for predictions about people on the basis of minimal evidence Estimates of the number of traits have ranged from almost 18,000 to the 16 Cattell identified through factor analysis

Eysenck’s hierarchical model: The specific response level Observed behaviors The habitual response level Behaviors observed on several occasions Traits Eysenck proposed three superordinate traits: Introversion-extraversion, emotional stability, and psychoticism (or constraint)

Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Personality

Extraversion is a superordinate trait made up of sociability, dominance, assertiveness, activity, and liveliness. Each of these subordinate traits is made up of habitual and specific responses.

The Big Five or Five Factor Model: Five basic personality traits: Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism Significant evidence supports the five factor model Including some predictive studies and cross-cultural studies Big Five: Ask students to complete the online Big Five assessment ( and bring their results to class. Working in small groups, ask students to discuss the test, their results, and how accurately they believe their personality is described by their results. If time permits, ask students to have their roommate or a friend take the online test as well answering according to how they view the student. Have students bring that printout as well and discuss the similarities and differences between the two reports. Which is the more accurate view of the student’s personality? Why? Personality Traits of U.S. Presidents: Rubenzer, Ones, and Faschingbauer (2000) provide a fascinating analysis of the personality traits of U.S. presidents. A discussion of some of their findings would be of interest to students and could be expanded to discuss the personality traits of the current president. Some interesting findings include: Openness to experience produced the highest correlation with ratings of greatness Extraversion, assertiveness, and achievement-orientation were also correlated with ratings of greatness Agreeableness and being straightforward were not correlated with ratings of greatness

The Big Five Personality Factors

The acronym OCEAN is a good way to remember these terms.

ZAPS: The Norton Psychology Labs
Big Five

Personality Reflects Learning and Cognition
Early learning theorists: B. F. Skinner Viewed personality as result of the individual’s history of reinforcement Dissatisfaction with this view led to Kelly’s personal construct theory: Individuals develop personal theories about the world

Julian Rotter: Behavior is a function of people’s expectancies for reinforcement, as well as the value they ascribe to the reinforcer Locus of control (internal vs. external) Describes people’s beliefs about the success of their efforts

Incorporation of cognition into learning theories led to the development of cognitive-social theories of personality Emphasize how personal beliefs, expectancies, and interpretations of social situations shape behavior and personality Albert Bandura Self-efficacy

Walter Mischel’s cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS) People’s responses in a given situation are influenced by: How they encode or perceive the situation Their affective (emotional) response to the situation The skills and competencies they have to deal with challenges Their anticipation of the outcomes that their behavior will produce

Mischel and Shoda believed personality traits alone could not predict behavior.

Personality models such as CAPS emphasize self-regulatory capacities People set personal goals, evaluate their progress, and adjust their ongoing behavior in pursuit of those goals

How Is Personality Assessed, and What Does It Predict?
Personality Refers to Both Unique and Common Characteristics Researchers Use Objective and Projective Methods to Assess Personality Observers Show Accuracy in Trait Judgments People Sometimes Are Inconsistent Behavior Is Influenced by the Interaction of Personality and Situations There Are Cultural and Gender Differences in Personality

Learning Objectives Identify strengths and limitations of different methods of personality assessment. Explain why personality does not always predict behavior.

Personality Refers to Both Unique and Common Characteristics
Allport divided the study of personality into two types of approaches: Idiographic Person centered Nomothetic Focused on traits Employment Testing: Discuss the role of psychological testing in employment. Ask students if they believe personality testing should be included as part of a job interview. You can extend this by asking if such testing should be part of college admissions.

Personality Refers to Both Unique and Common Characteristics
Idiographic theorists are more likely to use case studies or the narrative approach Nomothetic theorists tend to compare people by using common trait measures Questionnaires or other similar methods Creating a Life Story: Ask students to write their own life story as a way of helping them develop a better understanding of the idiographic approach. Students may have a better understanding of what is required if you ask them to read Murray’s narrative (life story) of Adolph Hitler that is mentioned in the text.

Objective and Projective Methods to Assess Personality
Choice of which personality measures to use tends to be determined by theoretical orientation of the user

Projective techniques: Rorschach Inkblot Test and the TAT Reflect psychodynamic theories as Based on the assumption they people will project their unconscious processes onto the ambiguous stimuli (projective hypothesis) Personality on the Web: Ask students to seek out a website offering free personality testing. Ask them to complete the test and answer the following questions, which can be discussed during class or during a small group discussion. Name of test What was the test designed to do? Did the test provide any useful information about the student’s personality? Which personality theory discussed in class did this test seem to represent? What are the advantages and disadvantages of computerized test interpretation?

Objective measures: NEO Personality Inventory and the California Q Sort Do not rest on the assumptions of psychodynamic theories Consist of self-report questionnaires or direct observations of behavior Assessment in K–12: Ask an education professor or a school counselor from a local school to guest lecture about how K–12 students are assessed and what implication such assessment has for the students, their teachers and their schools. Ask students to discuss their opinions of the current status of such assessment once the guest has left.

These are three of the cards participants sort when taking the Q-Sort assessment.

Observers Show Accuracy in Trait Judgements
Researchers have found that close acquaintances may be more accurate at predicting your behavior than you are In one study, ratings of assertiveness and other traits made by friends predicted these traits in the lab better than did the person’s own ratings Although covered in other areas of the text, reviewing concepts of reliability, validity, and standardization is important in this chapter as well. In addition, the concept of social desirability is an important one for students to understand, especially in relation to self-report measures.

People Sometimes Are Inconsistent
Situationism Mischel proposed that behaviors are determined as much by situations as by personality traits This affected the field for more than a decade and caused considerable rifts between: Social psychologists, who tended to emphasize situational forces Personality psychologists, who focused on individual dispositions

People Are Sometimes Inconsistent
The basic argument made by personality researchers in the person-situation debate is The extents to which traits predict behavior depends on: The centrality of the trait The aggregation of behaviors over time The type of trait being evaluated

Behavior Is Influenced by Personality and Situations
Personality dispositions are meaningful constructs that predict people’s behavior over time and across many circumstances Yet people are also highly sensitive to social context, and most conform to situational norms

Behavior Is Influenced by Personality and Situations
Most trait theorists are interactionists They believe that behavior is jointly determined by situations and underlying dispositions Individuals choose many of the situations in which they find themselves (e.g., go to the party or stay home) A reciprocal interaction occurs between the person and the environment They simultaneously influence each other

There Are Cultural and Gender Differences in Personality
Studying cross-cultural differences is problematic: Do the same questions have the same meaning? Sampling Accurate translation of measures

More than 120 scientists conducted a careful investigation of personality differences across 56 nations: From Argentina to Zimbabwe Found support for the Big Five personality traits across all countries Supports the argument that those traits are universal for humans

Women More empathetic and agreeable than men More neurotic and concerned about feelings Men More assertive These differences are largest in North America and Europe More equal opportunities and treatment Smallest in Asian and African communities

A team of more than 120 scientists investigated the Big Five personality traits around the world, from Argentina to Zimbabwe.

What Are the Biological Bases of Personality?
Animals Have Personalities Personality Is Rooted in Genetics Temperaments Are Evident in Infancy Personality Is Linked to Specific Neurophysiological Mechanisms Personality Is Adaptive Critical Thinking Skill: Avoiding Single-Cause Explanations Personality Traits Are Stable over Time

Learning Objectives Describe the causal links among genes, temperament, and personality traits. Recognize empirical findings supporting biological bases of personality.

What Are the Biological Bases of Personality?
A person’s genetic makeup may predispose certain traits or characteristics, but whether these genes are expressed depends on the unique circumstances that each child faces during development Nature vs. Nurture: Ask students to bring in a written answer to the question, “is culture or biology a more important influence on personality?” Ask students to discuss this issue in small groups using examples from their own life as well as material from the text.

Animals Have Personalities
Researchers have found that traits similar to the Big Five traits of extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness could be seen in most species Sam Gosling and Oliver John Openness to experience was found in approximately 50% of species But only chimpanzees showed conscientiousness

Personality Is Rooted in Genetics
Nearly all personality traits have a genetic component Genetic influence accounts for approximately half of the variance (40–60 percent) between individuals in personality traits Situational Factors in Personality: Show the Stanford Prison Experiment (may be found on the Discovering Psychology video, The Power of the Situation, available from Annenberg Media online at After showing the clip, ask students to discuss how much the situation can influence personality. If the situation is that powerful, are personality tests valid?

Researchers examined correlations between 123 pairs of identical twins (monozygotic) and 127 pairs of fraternal twins (dizygotic) in Vancouver, Canada.

Parenting style has an effect: Children who are raised with inadequate parenting are not socialized properly More likely to become delinquent or display antisocial behavior Same or Different Environments: Are siblings reared in the same house with the same parents exposed to the same environment? What are the similarities or differences? If there are differences, might these account for the differences in how siblings “turn out”?

In general, genetics influence personality based on multiple genes However, single genes have been identified in: Novelty seeking Neurotransmitter dopamine Neuroticism and agreeableness Neurotransmitter serotonin Better Personalities through Chemistry? Ask students if there was a pill to make them more extraverted, would they take it? Would they still be the same person after taking the pill? What if there were pills that would influence all of the Big 5 personality traits?

Temperaments Are Evident in Infancy
From birth, infants show temperamental differences that can be grouped into three categories: Activity level Emotionality Sociability

Long-term implications of temperaments: Research has demonstrated that early temperament is predictive of later personality and behaviors

Gender and temperaments: Girls have a stronger ability to control their attention and to resist impulses Boys are physically active and experience more high-intensity pleasure Rough-and-tumble play

Shyness and inhibition: Shyness has been linked to early temperament with about 15 to 20% of newborns classified as inhibited Biological evidence indicates the amygdala shows greater responsivity in shy individuals About 25% of inhibited children do not become shy Illustrating the importance of parental creation of calm and safe environments

Researchers investigated the personality development of more than 1,000 people, 97 percent of whom remained in the study through their 21st birthdays. Those judged undercontrolled at age three were later more likely to have alcohol problems, to be criminals or unemployed, to attempt suicide, to be antisocial and anxious, and to have less social support than those judged either well adjusted or inhibited.

Personality Is Linked to Specific Neurophysiological Mechanisms
Arousal and extraversion/introversion: Cortical arousal, or alertness, is regulated by the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) Eysenck proposed that this system differs between extraverts and introverts Extraverts are underaroused Research supports Eysenck’s theories with extraverts performing better in noisy environments Brain Injury and Personality: Show clips from the Harrison Ford movie, Regarding Henry, before and after the brain injury. Showing the two clips provides an effective method of demonstrating the powerful impact such injuries can have on personality. The movie was released in 1991 by Paramount Pictures and is available in DVD format.

Neurophysiology of extraversion/introversion: Behavioral approach system Brain structures that lead organisms to approach stimuli in pursuit of rewards Behavioral inhibition system Brain structures sensitive to punishment and therefore inhibits behavior that might lead to danger or pain Have been found to differentiate introverts and extraverts Effects of Drugs on Personality: Ask students to tell you what they have observed about the effects of alcohol on personality. Students frequently can share interesting stories about how the personalities of their friends change when drinking alcohol. What lessons about personality do students derive from their observations about alcohol and personality? Expand this by discussing the theory that the women accused of witchcraft during the Salem witch trials were under the influence of ergot (fungus on rye wheat) producing an LSD-like experience (

Behavioral Approach System and Behavioral Inhibition System

Signals of potential reward are processed by the BAS
Signals of potential reward are processed by the BAS. Signals of potential punishment are processed by the BIS. Based on the information each receives, the BAS activates behavior and the BIS inhibits behavior.

The amygdala Implicated in both social sensitivity and processing of cues related to possible punishment

Personality Is Adaptive
David Buss Big Five personality traits emerged as foundational Each provides important information regarding mate selection

Personality Is Adaptive
From an evolutionary viewpoint: Individual differences may reflect the inheritance of alternative strategies that become activated depending on situational context Groups who have diverse members may be more successful than groups composed of homogeneous members

Critical Thinking Skill
Avoiding single-cause explanations Most people prefer single explanations that confirm their biases Single causes often ignore an issue’s complexity Consider multiple-cause arguments instead

Be sure to consider multiple causes of a phenomenon, not just the one that jumps out at you.

Personality Traits Are Stable over Time
Over many years the relative rankings of individuals on each of the Big Five personality traits remain stable Stability is lowest during early childhood and highest over age 50

This graph shows the levels of consistency, at different ages, of the study participants’ personalities.

Age-related change: In general, people become less neurotic, less extraverted, and less open to new experiences as they get older People also tend to become more agreeable and much more conscientious with age

Characteristic adaptations: Basic tendencies Dispositional traits determined largely by biological processes Characteristic adaptations Adjustments to situational demands

The brain develops well into early adulthood May explain the greater evidence of personality change before age 30 Environments tend to be relatively stable, especially after early adulthood

McCrae and Costa’s Model of Personality

Basic tendencies are biologically based, but characteristic adaptations are influenced by situations. The lines with arrows indicate some of the ways in which the different components interact. The important point is that basic tendencies do not change across situations, but observable behavior (objective biography) does because it is influenced by personal goals and motives as well as by situations.

How Do We Know Our Own Personalities?
Our Self-Concepts Consist of Self-Knowledge Perceived Social Regard Influences Self- Esteem Critical Thinking Skill: Resisting Appeals to Snobbery We Use Mental Strategies to Maintain Our Views of Self There Are Cultural Differences in the Self

Learning Objectives Differentiate among leading theoretical perspectives concerning the nature and origins of self-esteem. Describe cultural differences in self-construal.

Our Self-Concepts Consist of Self-Knowledge
Self-awareness: The objectified self Researchers have differentiated between the self as the knower (“I”) and the self as the object that is known (“me”)—called the objectified self The theory of objective self-awareness Self-awareness leads people to act in accordance with their personal values and beliefs

Self-discrepancy theory Awareness of differences between personal standards and goals leads to strong emotions Self-awareness is highly dependent on the normal development of the frontal lobes As evidenced by the difficulties experienced by those with damage to this region

Self-schema: Network of interconnected knowledge about the self Memories, beliefs, generalizations about the self-help filter information Activation of the middle of the frontal lobes occurs when people process information about themselves

The self-schema consists of interrelated knowledge about the self.

Working self-concept: The immediate experience of self Limited to the amount of personal information that can be processed cognitively at any given time

When considering themselves or their personalities, people are especially likely to mention characteristics that distinguish them from other people.

Perceived Social Regard Influences Self-Esteem
Whether people perceive themselves to be worthy or unworthy, good or bad Many theorists, such as Carl Rogers, assume that people’s self-esteem is based on how they believe others perceive them Reflected appraisal Lake Wobegon Effect: In Garrison Keilor’s fictional town, every child is above average – the Lake Wobegon Effect. Describe this effect, relating it to the broader issue of cognitive biases and self-esteem:

Sociometer theory: Self-esteem is a sociometer An internal monitor of social acceptance (high self-esteem) or rejection (low self-esteem) Monitors the likelihood of social exclusion

According to sociometer theory, self-esteem is the gauge that measures the extent to which a person believes he or she is being (a) included in or (b) excluded from a social group.

Self-esteem and death anxiety: Terror management theory Self-esteem protects people from the horror associated with knowing that they will eventually die

Self-esteem and life outcomes: Although having high self-esteem makes people happier, it does not necessarily lead to successful social relationships or life success Inflated self-esteem may become narcissism Viewing oneself in grandiose terms, self-centered, feel entitled to special treatment, and are manipulative of others Association between Self-Esteem and Violence: Several researchers have highlighted the association between high self-esteem and violent behavior (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996). In particular, self-appraisals that are inflated or ill-founded have been found to be problematic.

A recent meta-analysis found increasing narcissism among American college students between 1979 and 2006 Contributing factors might include: Programs aimed at increasing self-esteem among schoolchildren Grade inflation Rise in the use of self-promotion Web sites such as Facebook and MySpace Facebook and MySpace: Ask students to discuss the types of things they have seen on Facebook and MySpace sites. The text argues that such sites might be increasing narcissism. Ask students to provide example of postings that might support this position. Is it inevitable that such sites result in self-promotion? How might these sites be used in a more positive way? What do students believe about this issue? Should such sites be prohibited?

We Use Mental Strategies to Maintain Our Views of Self
Most people have positive illusions in at least three domains: Better-than-average effect Unrealistic perception of their personal control over events Unrealistically optimistic about their futures Perceived Self vs. Ideal Self: Jarvis, Nordstrom, and Williams (2001) created a useful classroom exercise highlighting the differences between perceived and ideal self. Distribute two sheets of paper asking students to label one, “Perceived Self.” Ask them to write a description of how they see themselves on this paper. You may need to provide them an example of how you might begin writing such a description for yourself. Once they have finished, ask them to label the second page, “Ideal Self.” Ask them to write a description of what they would like to be. Tell them to be as creative as they would like. One students have completed this task, ask if any student wrote the same description on each page. It is likely that the answer will be no. Explain that, from a humanistic perspective, a self-actualized person would view the ideal self as completely congruent with the perceived self. Ask students why there are discrepancies between their descriptions of their perceived self and their ideal self. Why is there not complete overlap?

This graph shows the study participants’ ratings of the letters of the alphabet.

A number of automatic and unconscious strategies have been proposed to explain how people maintain their positive sense of self: Self-evaluative maintenance Social comparisons Self-serving biases Single Measure of Self-Esteem: Robins, Hendin, and Trzesniewski (2001) demonstrated that response to a single statement, “I have high-self-esteem,” can provide a valid global measure of self-esteem. Ask students to rate their responses to this statement on a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 representing ‘not very true of me’ to 5 representing “very true of me.” Discuss the findings that undergraduates from diverse backgrounds score a mean of 3.5, a median of 4, and a mode of 4 on this measure. Correlations with other measures of self-esteem are relatively high (.75 to .80). Higher self-esteem scores are positively correlated with extraversion, conscientiousness, optimism, life satisfaction, and physical well-being. Negative correlations are found between self-esteem and neuroticism, shyness, depression, and perceived stress. Men tend to report higher self-esteem than women and those higher in self-esteem are more prone to self-enhancement bias and self-serving attributions.

Self-evaluative maintenance: People can feel threatened when someone close to them outperforms them on a task that is personally relevant To maintain self-esteem, you would either distance yourself from the relationship or select a different aspiration

Social comparisons: People evaluate their own actions, abilities, and beliefs by contrasting them with those of others People with high self-esteem make downward comparisons, contrasting themselves with people who are deficient to them on relevant dimensions People with low self-esteem tend to make upward comparisons, with those who are superior to them

This graph shows the results of Wilson and Ross’s 2001 study.

Self-serving bias: People with high self-esteem tend to take credit for success but blame failure on outside factors Criticism is assumed by those with high self-esteem to be motivated by envy or prejudice

There Are Cultural Differences in the Self
An important way in which people differ in their self-concepts is whether they view themselves as Fundamentally separate from Western cultures; individualistic Inherently connected to other people Eastern cultures; collectivist

Self-construals differ in (a) individualist and (b) collectivist cultures.

People in collectivist cultures tend to have interdependent self-construals Self-concepts are determined to a large extent by their social roles and personal relationships People in individualistic cultures tend to have independent self-construals

Self-enhancement is probably universal, but the traits people focus on to achieve it vary across cultures When the culture emphasizes personal achievement, people self-enhance as individuals When the culture emphasizes group achievement, people self-enhance as group members

www.wwnorton.com/studyspace Diagnostic Quizzes Visual Quizzes
Chapter Reviews Review Podcasts Vocabulary Flashcards Video Podcasts Video Exercises Animations Critical Thinking Activities

Personality 13. Psychological Science, 3rd Edition Michael Gazzaniga Todd Heatherton Diane Halpern.

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