FEM 3001 (INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT)

FEM 3001 (INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT)
INSTRUCTOR DR SITI NOR BINTI YAACOB JPMPK, FEM CONTACT NO PHONE: FEM 3001 is the basic course in your entire studies

OUTLINE UNIT 1 - PHYLOSOPHY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: HISTORY, RELIGION & THEORY UNIT 2 - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN ECOLOGICAL CONTEXTS UNIT 3 - LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT UNIT 4 - FITRAH AND POTENTIALS UNIT 5 - VALUES AND CULTURE FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

PHYLOSOPHY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: HISTORY, RELIGION & THEORY
UNIT 1: PHYLOSOPHY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: HISTORY, RELIGION & THEORY What is Human Development? The Concept of Insan & Human Beings Human Development The Creation of Human Beings The Scientific Approach The Religious Perspective FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

What is Human Development?
Definition: Scientific study of processes of change and stability of human beings (from conception till death) Systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death, or from “womb to tomb.” (from book Sigelman & Rider, 2009) The systematic changes and continuities fall into three broad domains: Physical development: growth of body Cognitive development: changes in perception, language, memory. Psychosocial development: motives, personality traits, interpersonal skill and relationship.

Basis philosophy and concepts of human development  human as God-created being  INSAN
In this course, insan refers to universal understandings of human-beings Insan in the context of their environments; where interactions & transactions take place; which will in turn influence & will be influencing quality of life & quality of the environment. Focus on human beings across life cycle Ecological perspective – broad “tool” to understand human beings as person- in-environment Base: Faith in God; Goals: Quality of life, quality of environment Through scientific processes of describing, explaining, predicting & modifying of behaviour

The creation of human beings
Using developmental approach, studies on human development normally have been focussing on child development During the 6th – 15th century , children were assumed as mini adults, preformationism; children are known as persons who need protection 16th century : The religious perspective (Protestan) demanded parents to be strict in nurturing their children in order for them to be able to tell right from wrong 17th century: John Locke pointed the importance of human dignity; respects; > behavioural Children, known as tabula rasa (blank slate); originally “pure”; strated form nothing; need to be guided through experiences Children were viewed as passive mechanistic, development occurred continuously; and parents mould their children’s behaviour through warmth nurturing FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Rousseau introduced the stages of development and maturity concepts
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) – a French philosopher; claimed that children are noble savages (have natural tendency/sense of differentiating right from wrong; can grow to become healthy adults Children have internal senses; cognitive ability & unique emotions that are prone to be abused / corrupted by adults who trained them Rousseau introduced the stages of development and maturity concepts Aristotle: HumChildren are organismic (active designer of their own destiny); development does not occur continuously, but in stages; nature’s role in determining changes in life Human beings are the thinking, social, political animal who run various functions in order to live FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH…
The first scientific investigations of development were undertaken on late 19th century. Scholars observe the growth and development of their own children, and publish in the form of baby biographies. The most influential baby biographer was Charles Darwin. Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882), British “naturalist” Darwin studied variations in plants and animal species No 2 items/individuals/specimens that are 100% the same The founder of the evolution theory Darwin’s evolutionary perspective and studies of the development of embryos strongly influenced early theories of human development, which emphasized universal, biological based maturational changes. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Focus: Physical & behavioural adaptations
2 basic principles of the evolution theory: natural selection & survival of the fittest Natural selection: some species are naturally selected to survive in certain environment because they have the fit with characteristic  able to adapt; Others … died / perished Those who survived will continue to live for a long time reproduce & continue to generate quality characteristics for their next generations Focus: Physical & behavioural adaptations Darwin claimed that at the early stage (prenatal) some species are similar He concluded that all species including human beings have the same ancestors This has created debates and finally proven to be false. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Normative Era G. Stanley Hall (1846 – 1924), American psychologist, fore father of research on child development, first president of the American Psychological Association. He collects more objective data on large samples of individuals  questionnaire Influential book: adolescence (1904) Adolescence was a time of emotional ups and downs and rapid changes. Substantial changes in brain and in cognitive and social functioning do take place during adolescence. With Arnold Gesell (1880 – 1961) – they claimed human development as “genetically determined, develop automatically.. Just like flowers” The normative method refers to research on human behaviour based on responses from MANY respondents; often linked with certain age group. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Mental/Cognitive Testing Era
Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911), French Psychologist, applied normative method to test human intelligence Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test It initiated heated debates over the issue of nature versus nurture FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

THE RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE
Human beings are not machines (there are mind & spirit); not animals nor angels, and not GOD who creates himself In Islam, human beings are created by Allah in the best form of creation, to become khalifah FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Surah Al-Hijr (26) yang bermaksud:
“Dan sesungguhnya kami (Allah) telah menciptakan manusia (Adam) dari tanah liat kering, (yang berasal) dari tanah lumpur hitam yang diberi bentuk Surah At-Tin: (4) yang bermaksud: “Sesungguhnya telah kami (Allah) ciptakan manusia itu di dalam sebaik-baik cara, kami menjadikan sesuatu kelengkapan sesuai dengan keadaannya” Surah Al-Mu’minun (12 – 14) yang bermaksud: “Dan sesungguhnya Kami telah menciptakan manusia dari (saripati) tanah. Kemudian Kami jadikan (saritanah) itu airmani yang tersimpan dalam tempat yang kukuh (rahim). Lalu kami jadikan air mani itu segumpal darah, lalu gumpalan darah itu Kami jadikan segumpal daging, dan Kami jadikan gumpalan daging itu tulang belulang, lalu kami lapisi tulang belulang itu dengan daging. Kemudian Kami bentuk ia menjadi makhluk yang lain. Maha Suci Allah, sebaik-baik pencipta FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Spiritual = related with 4 elements: spirit, the nafs, mind, and qalb
Men were created with certain purpose (amanah) – to function as khalifah who obeys his Creator. The coordination of both mind and spirit forms INSAN Spiritual = related with 4 elements: spirit, the nafs, mind, and qalb Roh = it’s God’s business; Nafsu – bases for the reality of human beings: 3 levels of nafsu that urge or motivate behaviour: Ammarah, Lawwamah, Mutmainnah) Akal – bases for kemuliaan; mengetahui segala sesuatu Qalbu (hati)- merasa; asas keperibadian Men have tendencies for good and bad deeds. Originally pure and clean, given mind to think, able to strive, given the urgency to need & want; and bestowed with energy The QALB plays a big role in determining personality & behaviour where a person has to be responsible for FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

A PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Every age period of life is important Focus: processes that took place Perspectives that support this philosophy: FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT…
Development is multi dimensional & inter disciplinary Development continues through the life span Both heredity & environment influence development Development reflects both continuity & discontinuity Development is cumulative Development reflects both stability & change Development is variable Development is sometimes cyclical & repetitive Development reflects individual differences Development reflects cultural differences Development influences are reciprocal FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

New (additional) perspective:
Development involves changing of allocation & resources. Investment of resources (time, energy, talent, money & social support) are varied across life span Resources are used for GROWTH, MAINTENANCE, RECOVERY, DEALING WITH LOSS During childhood / young adulthood - resources go for growth; mid-life - balanced use; old age – regulations of losses. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

UNIT 2: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT
Ecological Background We do not live in isolation – we interact Environment: everything outside the system that we (the organism) live in Human beings = biological organism + social organism that interact and have transactions with(in) the environment FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

The History Behind Ecological Approach
Many proponents of ecological concepts. Aristotle and Plato The word “ecology” was introduced by Ernest Haeckel (1969) – German zoologist Originated from Greek term – Oikus (home/family) Human ecology – the study of individual in the context of family, household and environment. Individual development - interaction between the environment and heredity. A Chemist, Ellen Swallow Richards proposed a Scientific field of study to examine the influence of home environment on the family. Ellen studied air and water quality, sanitation, food & nutrition. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

General System Theory Basic concepts from the General Systems theory are applied Holistic perspective = holism, looking at living nature as interacting wholes (the whole is greater than the sum of the parts) Every system has 4 elements: Objects = parts of the system; what the system is made of (in a family – each member = object); basic element of the system Attributes = qualities/properties of the system & its members; indicate characteristics; uniqueness Relationships = connection between / among the elements of the system (between object-environment) Environment = anything that surrounds; can affect systems  understanding person-in context FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

A type of system .. Ecological system
What is ECOSYSTEM? .. A type of system .. Ecological system Made up of living organism (O) with their environments (E) originates from ecology: a science that investigate & describe reciprocal relationships between O & E) Basis: a survival unit never consist of O or species in a static environment; but rather, that it is an ecosystem with all O in reciprocal relationships with each other & with E Human behavior is influenced by the environment and vice versa Even though the environment changes due to technology, human beings need to impose control on life & environment to ascertain quality of life FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

ENVIRONMENT Processing Output Input Feedback ENVIRONMENT
Ecosytem seek a steady / stable / balanced state of existence  HOMEOSTASIS Organism adapts to reach homeostasis ENVIRONMENT Processing Output Input Feedback ENVIRONMENT FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

It’s an inter-disciplinary concept.
Bases: Human development is studied from the context of person-in- environment The principle: all growth & development occur in the context of relationships It’s an inter-disciplinary concept. To integrate & link various human & family issues  holistic & in a comprehensive manner to ensure a global plan of action. Human ecology = a field of study that considers individuals & families within their environment & the relationships between them FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Human Ecological System Perspective
System Theory Ecological Theory Organism + Environment + Interaction + Objects + Attributes + Relationships + Environment + Human Ecology FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

6 assumptions for the human ecological framework
Human-beings are not passive receivers of information & inputs Systems are dynamic  always changing Individuals & social systems have the capacity to change (they also wish to change) Changing one element of a system will cause change(s) to other parts Systems rely interdependently on one another to operate All systems have boundaries FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Pioneer: Beatrice Paolucci (Michigan State University) employed the home- economics approach Suggested that family is a social system that depend on: The natural environment for physical maintenance Social environment for human values; meaning and quality of life. Margaret Buboltz & Susan Sontag (Michigan State University) continue Paolucci’s work Proposed 3 environments that surround human beings: Natural - biophysical Socio-cultural Technology-human constructed FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

ENVIRONMENT Physical, biological, social, economic, political, esthetics & structure surroundings; contexts for human behavioral & growth/development Can be classified according to resources within them. Natural / bio-physical environment Mother-nature resources Water, earth, snow, time, plants, animals, fossil, minerals Can be beneficial for human consumptions Socio cultural environment Social institution - kinship, religion, politic, economy, legal, recreation or symbolic group Determines civilization & cultural system FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Technology – Human Constructed Environment
Buildings, bridge, hydro-electric, houses, highway Built using materials from the natural environment Science and technology advancement helps to improve quality of life; abuse of it may destroy life FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Family Ecosystem Model [Bubolz & Sontag; 1990]
Technology-human constructed Family Socio-cultural Natural-bio-physical TIME – Past, Present, Future FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Human Ecology: Urie Bronfenbrenner (Cornell University) focused on contextual aspects of human development He introduced 5 environmental systems: micro, meso, exo, macro & chrono. Classification based on size of the environment MICRO  small MACRO  big Bronfenbrenner (1979): the ecology of human development based upon the relationships between human beings & context where they interact or make transactions (exchange resources) The 5 systems are embedded within each other; the nearest environment is the environment where the individual resides & develops FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

MICROSYSTEM An immediate physical and social environment in which the individual interact with and influences by them. The nearest environment to the individuals A pattern of activities, roles & interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person in a given setting with particular physical & material characteristics Eg: Home environment & classroom are micro environments for primary school children FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

MESOSYSTEM Comprises the interrelations among 2 or more settings in which the developing person actively participates Example: Mesosystem for a child is the relationship between home, neighbor, and school Marital conflict (one microsystem) influence child performances in school (a second microsystem) Child: relations between home-school & neighborhood; Adults: family-work-social life It is a system for the micro system FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

EXOSYSTEM Refers to > 1 settings that do not involve the developing person as an active participant, but in which events occur that affect, or are affected by what happens in the setting containing the developing person Eg: exosystem of a child might include the parent’s place of work, a school attended by his older siblings, activities of the neighborhood etc FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

MACROSYSTEM Abstract in nature : refers to consistencies, in the form & content of lower order system (micro, meso, exo) that exist, or could exist, at the level of subculture or the culture as a whole along with any belief systems or ideology underlying such consistencies. eg: socio-cultural / customs; legal systems, religion, education, defense system. space is perceived differently across cultures – what determined the differences? Law? Religion? Custom? FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

CHRONOSYSTEM Refers to patterns of events & transitions that take place in individual’s environment through-out his/her life An idea that changes in people and their environment occur in time frame and unfold in particular patterns over a person’s lifetime. The element of TIME is important in this system FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

MACROSISTEM EXOSYSTEM MESOSYSTEM MICROSYSTEM Pattern of behaviour
Value system MESOSYSTEM MICROSYSTEM CHRONO-SYSTEM Pattern of events & changes in structure according to time INDIVIDU Family School Community Government agencies Friends Work place Belief system FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

The importance of the ecological perspective in understanding human development:
It takes the holistic approach (considers multiple factors regarding person – in – context). Focuses on wholeness.. Any phenomenon is seen from multiple perspectives - aiming to get the obtain high quality of life / environment Allows for an integrated plan of action – balanced & holistic; lend to improve Quality of life (individual, family, community…) FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Environments do not DETERMINE human behavior; but they can influence them through : limiting / blocking/ allowing/ facilitating / opening for opportunities & possibilities Families do not exist in isolation from the other environments, rather, they have a degree of control and freedom on their interactions / transactions with the environment & acquisition of resources FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Decisions & actions that are taken by individual/ families will give an impact on the community, culture, other environments … the WORLD. The world’s ecological well-being depends on the decisions & actions by the nation… down to the individual & families Decisions made at macro level or even at the WOLRD’s platform, will directly or indirectly impacting the individual & families. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Basic principles in ecological model (Conrad & Novick, 1996)
Human development is studied through the person-in-environment perspective Multiple & different environments experienced by individuals influenced the growth & development of individuals Every environment has its risks & protective factors The interactions between individuals & environment are two-way / reciprocal. It creates a complex feedback system Individual & family will always face changes & growth. Stress, coping & adaptation are normal developmental experiences. The general human/family ecological focused on the near environment (people, materials) which provide physical context & prime base for personal & familial activities The community system (neighborhood, market, schools, mosques/church/temple are included The macro (bigger) environments may also influence individual & family. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

The outcome  QUALITY OF LIFE & ENVIRONMENT
Human development occurs within the family context through family processes & activities These processes & activities are needed and influenced by the reciprocal interactions with & within the natural- physical; human constructed & socio-cultural environments The outcome  QUALITY OF LIFE & ENVIRONMENT Human Q of life: To what extend human needs, values & goals are met & how are they obtained Q of environment = safety, health, coping strategy, adequacy, justice… in providing natural resources, economic, social needs & support. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

SUMMARY The ecological perspective encourages the followings criteria in order to understand human beings: An integrated thinking Creative thinking A comprehensive focus of dynamic Systemic understanding Ethical reasoning Variability Practical action Self understanding FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

OTHER THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Definition Issues in Human Development Freud and Erikson: Psychoanalytic Theory Learning Theory Piaget: Cognitive Theory FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Definition A set of interrelated statements that provides an explanation for a class of events. (from book Crandell, Crandell, & Zanden, 2009) A set of ideas proposed to describe and explain certain phenomena. (from book Sigelman & Rider, 2009) A good theory helps us to describe, predict, and explain human development. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Issues in Human Development
Nature-nurture Is development primarily the product of genes, biology, and maturation-or of experience, learning, and social influences? Goodness-Badness of Human Nature Are humans innately good, innately bad, neither, or both? Activity-Passivity Do humans actively shape their own environments and contribute to their own development-or are they passively shaped by forces beyond their control? Continuity-Discontinuity Do humans change gradually and in quantitative ways-or do they progress through qualitative different stages and change dramatically into different beings? Universality-Context Specificity Is development similar from person to person and from culture to culture- or do pathways of development vary considerably depending on the social contexts? From book Sigelman & Rider, 2009, pg33 FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Freud (1856-1939): Psychoanalytic Theory
He proposed that people are driven by motives and emotional conflicts of which they are largely unaware and that they are shaped by their earliest experiences in life. Each people has certain amount of psychic energy that can be used to satisfy basic urges. They are divided into three components: Id: an impulsive, irrational part of the personality whose mission is to satisfy the instincts. People seek immediate gratification. Example: infants cry when they are hungry until their needs are met. Ego: rational side of the individual that tries to find realistic way of gratifying the instincts. Ego emerged during infants. Example: toddler lead dad to kitchen and say “cookie” when he/she hungry. Superego: internalized moral standards. From 3-6 years old. Example: not violating the rules and may feel shame if they do. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Oral stage (birth to 1 year) Lobido is focused on the mouth as a source of pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from a mother figure is critical to later development. Anal stage (1 to 3 years) Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet training creates conflicts between the child’s biological urges and the society’s demands. Phallic stage (3 to 6 years) Libido centers on the genitals. Resolution of the Oedipus or the Electra complex results in identification with the same-sex parent and development of the superego. Latent period (6 to 12 years) Libido is quiet; psychic energy is invested in schoolwork and play with same-sex friends. Genital stage (12 years and older) Puberty reawakens the sexual instincts as youth seek to establish mature sexual relationships and pursue the biological goal of reproduction. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Erikson (1902-1994): Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory
Concern with inner dynamics of personality and it evolves through systematic stages. He proposed that personality continues to develop over the entire life span. Erikson concerned with psychosocial development, or development of the person within a social context. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year) Infants must learn to trust their caregivers to meet their needs. Responsive parenting is critical. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 to 3 years) Children must learn to be autonomous- to assert their wills and do things for themselves-or they will doubt their abilities Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years) Preschoolers develop initiative by devising and carrying out bold plans, but they must be learn not to impinge on the right of others. Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12 years) Children must master important social and academic skills and keep up with their peers, otherwise, they will feel inferior. Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 20 years) Adolescents ask who they are and must establish social and vocational identities, otherwise, they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults. Intimacy vs. isolation (20 to 40 years) Young adults seek to form a shared identity with another person, but may fear intimacy and experience loneliness and isolation. Generativity vs. stagnation (40 to 65 years) Middle-aged adults must feel that they are producing something that will outlive them, either as parents or as workers, otherwise, they will become stagnation and self-centered. Integrity vs. despair (65 years and older) Older adults must come to view their lives as meaningful to face death with out worries and regrets. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

LEARNING: Watson (1913): classical conditioning
He believed that human development and functioning should be based on observations of overt behaviours rather than on speculations about unobservable cognitive and emotional process. Classical conditioning: simple form of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual comes to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that already elicit the response. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): An unlearned stimulus Unconditioned response (UR): a response come from UCS Conditioned stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus come first and following by UR. Then the neutral stimulus will become CS Conditioned response (CR): a response come from CS FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

LEARNING: Skinner: Operant Conditioning
He emphasized on the role of environment in controlling behavior. Positive punishment: occurs when an unpleasant event is added to the situation following a behavior. Negative punishment: occurs when something pleasant is removed from the situation following the behavior. Positive reinforcement: something has been added to the situation, reinforcement means strengthened. Negative reinforcement: occurs when a behavioral tendency is strengthened because something negative or unpleasant is removed from the situation. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
Human are cognitive beings whose active processing of information plays a critical role in their learning, behavior, and development. This theory highlighting that observational learning as the most important mechanism through which human behavior changes, Bandura made his cognitive emphasis clear. Observational learning: learning by observing the behavior of other people (or call models). Example: a child may learn how to speak a language, tackle math problems, smoke, and others, by imitating others. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Piaget (1896-1980): Cognitive Development Theory
Emphasized on cognitive development. Constructivism: Piaget viewed intelligence as a process that helps an organism adapt to its environment. A children actively construct new understandings of the world based on their experiences. Children use their current understandings of the world to help them solve problems, they also revise their understandings to make them fit reality better. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) Infants use their sense and motor actions to explore and understand the world. At the start they have only innate reflexes, but they develop increasingly “intelligent” actions. By the end, they are capable of symbolic though using images or words and can therefore plan solutions to problems mentally. Preoperational (2 to 7 years) Preschoolers use their capacity for symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play, and solve problems. Their thinking is not yet logical. They are egocentric and are easily fooled by perceptions because they cannot rely on logical operations. Concrete operations (7 to 11 years) School-age children acquire concrete logical operations that allow them to mentally classify, add, and otherwise act on concrete objects in their heads. They can solve practical, real-world problems through a trial-and-error approach but have difficulty with hypothetical and abstract problems. Formal operations (11 to 12 years and older) Adolescents can think about abstract concepts and purely hypothetical possibilities and can trace the long-range consequences of possible actions. With age and experience, they can form hypotheses and systematically test them using the scientific method. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

UNIT 3: LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Focus on development across life stages of life). It begins with conception and ends with death. Divided into various stages; based on growth & changes . In general, there are common/ universal characteristics for each stage; however, there are also unique characteristics amongst individuals: (characters, time, duration). FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Stages in life: Conception & pregnancy Birth
Infant (1st two years following birth) Early childhood (toddler) (3 - 6 years of age) Middle childhood (7 – 12 years of age) Early adolescence ( years of age) Late adolescence (16 – 19 years of age) Early adulthood (20-30’s) Middle adulthood (40-50’s) Late adulthood (above 60) FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

CONCEPTIONS & PREGNANCY
Prenatal stage; the 1st stage of life Starts with the conception between ovum & sperm forming zygote Developmental stages during prenatal: Germinal Period – starts from conception to implantation (takes about 14 days). Embryonic period – from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception Fatal period – from 8 weeks to the end of pregnancy A normal pregnancy lasts for 9 months & 10 days; divided into 3 trimesters (basically for medical purposes): 1st Trimester (early pregnancy – 3rd month) – very crucial stage 2nd Trimester (4th – 6th month) 3rd Trimester (last 3 months) Fetus develops throughout pregnancy; Influenced by both genetic & environmental factors; Mothers-to-be experienced tremendous changes – physical, emotional; particularly due to the changes in hormonal level FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Environment may influence fetal development
Challenges: Environment may influence fetal development Teratogens = an agent in the environment that can cause fetal defect/ abnormalities/ death (miscarriages) The effect is varied, depending upon: Amount & period of exposure. Time of exposure. Genetic factors (of mother & fetus). The present of other teratogens . Critical period during prenata: Germinal/(zygote) = before implantation; teratogens < effect; If exposed; the cells collapsed (miscarriage) Embrionic: Most critical stage – major development occur rapidly during this period Fetal: Not as severe, but main organs can be easily damaged: brain, eyes; genital FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Types of teratogens (examples)
Medication (e.g.: thalidomide, diethylstilbestrol, aspirin) – may cause bodily defect; harm reproductive function; cancer, low birth weight, death Drugs – various physical & mental damages Cigarettes – (primary & secondary): low birth weight; premature birth, miscarriage; death; cancer FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Types of teratogens (examples)
Alcohol – brain damage, abnormal feature (facial), eyes are widely apart, thinner upper lip, small head size Radiation – cancer, miscarriage, abnormal physical growth, brain damages,, physical & mental retardation; harm formation of skull & eyes Others: rubella, STD - HIV/AIDS, bacteria/parasite i.e. toxoplasmosis (raw meat, cat’s feces) FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Figure 2.2 FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Other factors: Food & nutrition Stress/depression (emotional health)
Rh. factor (mismatch between fetus & mother) Rh. factor – is a blood protein Mother’s age Number of pregnancy / gaps in-between FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Infant stage (0-2 years following birth)
Infants develop tremendously – physical (motor); senses; emotional; social & emotional Primary social agents play significant role to establish various development of the infant Infant learns to trust or distrust people; learns how to express love & affections; tries to master stages of development (esp. physical) Infants temperaments can be detected at this stage FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Early childhood (3 - 6 years)
Preschool age (++ toddler) Rapid growth – physical; social, cognitive & language. Develops self concept, identity (early stage); gender role; loves to play with others Effective parent-child relationship is critical FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Middle Childhood (7- 12 years)
Ability in reading, writing, maths is developed Tries to think logically, to understand the “world” School is another importan micro system Rapid growth in psycho-social & moral dev. Good family relationship is critical FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Transitional period between childhood & adulthood
Early adolescence (13 – 15) Transitional period between childhood & adulthood Rapid growth – earlier among girls (puberty) Sexual maturity; formal operations thinking Wanting freedom, autonomy; prefer peers ? Earlier & stablished relationships since small will ease the adjustments for adolescents & parents FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Late adolescence (16 - 19 years)
Formation of self identity is critical aspect of development at this stage Plan for future career ; academic pursuits; working Establish relationship with partners of opposite sex  special relationship FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Early adulthood (20’s & 30’s)
Biggest challenge: to establish intimate realtionship; determine career of choice & get the job Various major life decisions: marriage, becoming parents, establishment of career Some early adults dace divorce at this stage; remarriage Many major life decisions at this stage will influence later stages FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Middle adulthood (40’s – 50’s)
Running out of time Self reflect, causes mid-life crisis Obtain > freedom esp. if all children left home Obtain personal & social responsibilities, successful career Adaptations are done especially if there are changes (in any other aspects) – i.e. promotions  moving to another state FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Focus on health care to maintain overall well-being
Late adulthood (> 60) Need to adjust & adapt since major changes occur in almost all aspects of life Focus on health care to maintain overall well-being Some late adults use their time wisely by giving back to the family / society/ country using their knowledge & experiences. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Challenges across life-cycle:
Various capacity, types, durations, timing Various factors may influence them or influence the impact of the challenges Risc factors; protective factors A resilient person can survive best FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Robert Havighurst (1953) – theory of developmental tasks.
Emphasized the interrelationship of physical, social, emotional, and intellectual aspects of development. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS …. Definition:
A developmental task is a task to be performed or achieved during a certain period in a person’s life. It represents culture's definition of "normal" development at different points in the life span. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS …. Definition:
It consist of a set of skills and competences that are acquired as the person gains increased mastery over the environment. Many developmental tasks are related to the society in which an individual lives . FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS …. Most people accomplish developmental tasks in a certain order. Successfully accomplish one task before going on to a task at the next level. Interrelationship of the factors. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS …. NO LIFE STAGE DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS 1 INFANCY
Social attachment 2 Sensori-motor intelligence and primitive causality 3 Object permanence 4 Maturation of motor function TODDLERHOOD Self-control Language development Fantasy and play Elaboration of locomotion. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS …. NO LIFE STAGE DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS 3
EARLY SCHOOL AGE 1 Sex role identification 2 Early moral development Concrete operations 4 Group play MIDDLE SCHOOL AGE Social cooperation Self-evaluation Skill learning Team play FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

EARLY ADOLESCENCE 1 Physical maturation 2 Formal operations 3 Membership in the peer group 4 Heterosexual relationships 6 LATER ADOELSCENCE Autonomy from parents Sex role identity Internalized morality Career choice FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

EARLY ADULTHOOD 1 Marriage 2 Childbearing 3 Work 4 Lifestyle 8 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD Management of the household Child rearing Management of a career FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

LATER ADULTHOOD 1 Redirection of energy into new roles 2 Acceptance of one life 3 Developing a point of view about death FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS…. NO LIFE STAGE PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS 1 INFANCY
Trust versus mistrust 2 TODDLERHOOD Autonomy versus shame and doubt 3 EARLY SCHOOL AGE Initiative versus guilt 4 MIDDLE SCHOOL AGE Industry versus inferiority 5 ADOLESCENCE Identity versus role diffusion 6 YOUNG ADULTHOOD Intimacy versus isolation 7 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD Generativity versus stagnation 8 LATER ADULTHOOD Integrity versus despair FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

UNIT 4: Human Nature – “FITRAH” & POTENTIAL
An innate natural predisposition which cannot change – exist at birth in all human beings. natural/ innate characteristics; BORN with us Examples: talent, physical ability; cognition & emotion Bestowed by the CREATOR - for the benefit of mankind Every human beings born into this world has natural characteristics that are “pure” & “perfect” FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Human Nature – “FITRAH”
Literal meaning – creation, cause a thing to exist for the first time, and the natural constitution with which a child is created in mother’s womb. Fitrah – is not a dormant potential. Fitrah (religious) – faculty (ability, power) created in mankind. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

2 types of human’s natural characteristics: Physical Spiritual
Negative influences by the nurturing processes & low quality environment may disturb the purity 2 types of human’s natural characteristics: Physical Spiritual FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

PHYSICAL Human beings need 3 basic elements to survive: Food Clothing
Shelter Without all these / insufficiency of any may limit chances for human beings to live comfortably FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

SPIRITUAL It is part of human nature to seek for the truth & belief in God In accord with the nature: men are created by God Spiritual nature = human’s instinct about believing in God, the Creator The instinct to find faiths / religion is born within every mankind; Men need to fulfil this need in order to live accordingly FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS To ensure the growth of human’s natural characteristic; there are several basic needs that need to be fulfilled Abraham Maslow identified 5 basic needs of human beings The needs are arranged in a hierarchical order showing the existence of levels/stages FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Starts with first level, most basic = physiological needs; highest level is the self-actualization needs. Each human beings must fulfil the most basic needs before proceeding to the next level. The needs are not necessarily fulfilled in any particular order; some needs may be fulfilled simultaneously FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

The ability or inability of individuals to fulfil all 5 level of needs will influence his / her perceptions about life & the environments FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

HUMAN POTENTIALS Human potentials = latent ability / capability
Also known as possibilities in oneself Potentials need to be stimulated in order for it to be tapped / made known and grow Like Fitrah, potentials are also bestowed by God, the Creator. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Potentials are part of Fitrah; at a lower stage than fitrah
Fitrah will continue to grow even without stimulation; but potentials will be hindered / limited or never made known unless stimulated Quality development is an outcome of quality stimulation e.g.: a normal child will know how to talk eventually even without proper training, which is Fitrah’ However, if the child is trained in other language than his / her own, he or she may master that language eventually Stimulation through proper training / exposure to communication with others, reading materials, computers or other media FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Fitrah = i.e men do not fly
Potential = men design means & ways to enable them to fly (aircraft) Men have ability & capability to work on the means & ways to achieve their ambitions It’s fitrah for human being that potentials can be molded / honed to grow FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Potentials can also be viewed from the physical & spiritual perspectives
Physically, men have potentials to be involved in physical activities like sports, farming, recreation, exercise etc. Spiritually, men have potentials to understand concepts, thinking creatively & critically; innovative; debate etc in accord with his or her fitrah FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

The importance of understanding fitrah & potentials …..
Drive & regulate efforts towards excellence According to human’s fitrah, men are born to make good deeds; therefore no one is born to destroy or involved in bad things Men are born “pure” in all aspects == physical, mental, social & emotional FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Dysfunctional environment may disrupt the purity.
Eg; Fitrah: to get married & generate; “pure” means ways to generate the future generations; failing to do so in accord with the religious perspective / socio-cultural guidelines may produce bad generations, uncivilized (as a product of incest / rape & adultery), or marrying someone of the same sex… FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Potentials may differ from person to person; some may be highly potential in certain area and not in others Proper planning, quality training may stimulate development of potentials to the maximum level; in accord with the God's rules Other than quality stimulations; genetic, age, & other environmental actors may also influence human’s potentials FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Conclusions Men are born into this world - equipped with fitrah & potentials Fitrah is the natural characteristics; potentials refer to latent ability in human beings = must be made known Fitrah is related with the fulfilment of human needs; as suggested in Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Various factors in the environment may influence the growth & development of both fitrah & potentials Good planning of stimulations are needed to balance up t he growth of both fitrah & potentials FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

UNIT 5: VALUES & CULTURE Values are what we prize in life
What we consider most important to us Help make up the self and affect our self-concept Are usually based on ideas/ feelings about conditions. Ideas WE HAVE OF RIGHT OR WRONG Internalized concepts of the desirable (i.e. honesty, sharing, cleanliness, safety, love, cherish, being alone, having status, committed to, etc.) FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

DEFINITIONS Values are not just ideas…. must be part of action and way of life. Guides in what we do, how we do it Gives directions and security in making and following our decisions It influences: perceptions, goal settings and means to achieve them It is a criterion in making choices and in prioritizing the choices FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

DEFINITIONS Value is a concept that act as a system of ideas and beliefs, gives guidance about the worth of something, influences our beliefs about what is right or best, and impacts our decision making process. VALUING is a process by which information, resources and energy are selected, ordered by importance or assigned priority in terms of values. It includes prizing an idea and acting according. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Characteristic of values:
Influence behavior and decisions Tell what is important; Influence the way we act, react &make decisions. Are general rather than specific Certain value will be a factor in many aspects of one’s life. Are complex Difficult to know which values cause us to act; Problems can arise when more than one value is influencing thoughts and behavior. Are expressed in strong feelings Closely related to emotions; A discussion based on opposing beliefs may become heated. Are important - Have a forceful qualities that directs actions. Rank differently at different times Depending on the situation, certain values can be very important at one time but less important at other times. Can change - Result from learning and from experiences and relationships with others. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Some other definitions:
Linton, (1954): “Anything capable of influencing the individual’s decisions in choice situations and anything capable of producing an emotional response” Kluckhohn (1971): “An explicit or implicit conception; distinctive of an individual or characteristics of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from available means and ends of action” Rokeach, (1973): “An enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence” Modes of conduct = instrumental values End-state of existence= terminal values (ends or goals) FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Terminal values Wealthy life Revital life
Achievement (continuous contribution) Peaceful world (war free) World beauty (natural well-being, arts) Equity (brotherhood, equal opportunity) Family safety/security (care of members) Freedom (independent, right to make choice) FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Happiness (satisfaction) Internal harmony (free from internal stress)
Matured love (sexual & spiritual) Safe nation (protection against attact) Pleasure in life (happy life/ luxury) Safety Self dignity (self concept) Social dignity (recognition, respect) True friendship Wisdom (maturity) FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Instrumental values Highly ambitious Open
Capable (efficient, effective) Cheerful Clean & proper Resilient Forgiving Helpful Honest, truthful Imaginative, creative FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Responsible, trustworthy Self-control, discipline
Independent Intelligent Logic, rational Loving, caring Obedient Polite Responsible, trustworthy Self-control, discipline FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Paolucci (1977) classifed values into 3 categories: personal values
VALUE CLASSIFICATION Paolucci (1977) classifed values into 3 categories: personal values moral values social values FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

1. PERSONAL VALUES Personal values = “character”
The manner in which individual copes with everyday living by applying one’s beliefs and values Expressed through behaviours. self-discipline, self-motivation, punctuality, orderliness, self-evaluation of one’s efforts, decisiveness & goal orientation Unique for each individual; - parts of personality FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

2. MORAL VALUES Give a sense of right and wrong
Concerned with good & right behaviour Related with the responsibility to live in ways that protect the freedom & rights of others Reflect one’s concepts of moral decency Shown in honesty, dependability, tolerance, peace of mind, integrity, a sense of fair play, concern for long range benefits & consistency between ideals & actions FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

3. SOCIAL VALUES Shown in relationships with others
support, cooperation, recognition, independence, justice, benevolence, equity, respect for law, acceptance of majority rule, sense of interdependence, recognition of the worth & dignity of every human being FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

VALUE ORIENTATION Ways/style in which beliefs and values are assimilated from life experiences forming pattern(s). Kluckholm (1951) introduced 5 types of value orientations Activity orientation Human nature orientation People nature orientation Time orientation Relational orientation FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

I. ACTIVITY ORIENTATION
It answers Q about the nature of human behaviour The answers often related to cultural preferences, may be either: Being, or Being-in-becoming, or Doing FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Doing = emphasizes accomplishment,& how well can individual perform.
Being = a spontaneous expression of personality, allowing expression for individuality as a human being for what people are, rather than for what they can accomplish. being-in-becoming – concern for the person as a human being & what that person is becoming as a person Doing = emphasizes accomplishment,& how well can individual perform. Cultural factors may influence the types of activity orientation (focus more on accomplishment) FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

2. HUMAN NATURE ORIENTATION
Focus on individual’s qualities of good or evils. Some belief systems viewed human beings as evil, mixture of both, or good. Socialization plays a dominant role in shaping the qualities. Ethics & religions as factors of concern it is understood that human beings make mistake --- but ?… FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

3. PEOPLE NATURE ORIENTATION
It deals with the relationships between individuals & nature/environment Subjugation to nature (have no control over destiny) Harmony with nature (interdependent) Mastery over nature (master & control) FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

4. TIME ORIENTATION Reflects preferences for past, present, or future time orientation Influenced by culture & religion Chinese, > past orientation, ancestors are respected, strong family traditions The American: future oriented? ALL elements of time are important; Generally, educated people are future oriented & place high value on change as long as it does not threaten existing order FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

5. RELATIONAL ORIENTATION
Manners of relating with others. 3 manners: Linear preference Collateral preference Individualist preference FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Linear preference Based on behavioural similarities while permitting some differences within fixed customs. Group goals & traditions are important …. continuity through traditions & family lines. When problems arises: the oldest (male) member take charge FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

2. Collateral preference
Emphasizes on problem solving Individual is considered to be part of a social order The goals of extended family including siblings, cousins are primary - “for the good of the group” When problems arises: the family as a group and extended family are involved in achieving a common solution. A leader – qualified by expertise, not age or tradition FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

3. Individualist preference
Emphasizes problem solving ability of an individual, yet the individual still has responsibility to the total society The individual’s place & responsibilities are structured interdependently of collateral groups. Use spacing in relationship to the other groups to develop individualistic orientation US people… > individualistic? FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

FUNCTIONS OF VALUES Provide an orientation & set a framework for people to guide actions & behaviour 3 main fucntions: Standards of conduct Helps us to take positions on social, religious & political issues Provides standards for comparisons – as guides, to praise, to judge, to behave, to choose, etc.. Implies a pattern of consistent behaviour FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

2. Decision making & conflict resolution
Decisions are made by processing inputs from environment using information received through perceptions in which are influenced by value orientations, conflicts too are resolved based on values Can be difficult due to our perceptions of the situation, the meaning seen through our values & emotional factors Holistic view helps in understanding situations from various perspective.. Helps to resolve conflict FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Values have a strong motivational components
Instrumental values are immediate values that facilitate reaching goals Terminals values are the greater goals beyond the immediate goals Values motivate through their influence which leads to decision that help people gain self respect / esteem; guide in making adjustments & help in developing personal growth FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

PATTERNS OF VALUES Values are embedded by the family system within a specific culture, in an historical time period. Social influences are present for all families Values guide the extent to which outside preferences from the society will influence family… Diversity, globalization Value patterns are related to specific time & situations … I.e > self awareness vs actions out of wish for other’s approval FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

PROCESS OF VALUING Values exist on a personal, family or cultural levels; we develop values to guide our decision making at each level How do we acquire a value orientation? Children acquires values primarily within the family system (trust; aproval, praise & rewards) Cultural values are transmitted primarily within the family Value transmission process operates through 3 mechanisms: reinforcement, modelling & adoption FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

1. Reinforcement A child is rewarded for behaviour that reflects desired values; punished if otherwise 2. Modelling Children learn values through modelling from their significant others esp parents (what they do is modelled more that what they say) 3. Adoption values are absorbed & adopted; people are not passive receivers.. Internalized values, become personal standards, they grow from experiences.. FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

3 approaches of acquiring values:
Traditional - Authoritarian Approach Based in absolute values that have meaning apart from & external to people People are responsible to learn these values & live accordingly They are part of social traditions; acceptance of the authority & leaders is critical Everyone knows what is right & wrong; socialization is based on indoctrination, fear, punishment, rewards, praise, blames. People are passive reactors; must accept & comply Relates with fundamentalistic thinking FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

The Absolute Relativity Approach
Emphasizes that all values are relative, no absolute ethical principles or moral values. People are considered as supreme or central; must assert themselves, & construct own reality The Organismic-structural-developmental approach Based on different view of people, the environment & the relationships between them Human being as a functional whole (organized, integrated, systematic) Rejects the idea that people are being controlled by external sources > related with ecological thinking & decision making FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

CLARIFYING VALUES Value system exists through 3 processes: choosing, appreciating & acting on it Choosing involves judging, evaluating freely over a few alternatives & the consequences of the choice Appreciating involves feeling of satisfaction with one’s choice and acknowledging Acting or doing involves using/employing the values in all aspects of life - consistently FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

One’s values may change depending upon changes that occur in one’s life
Traditional values are challenged especially in the post industrial era I.e = “mind your own business” vs. “caring for one another” ??? What else? FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

PARADIGM SHIFT Refers to restructuring basic values on the way how we perceive the world Social paradigm comprises a group of values, beliefs & experiences that are shared by the majority of the people in the society Social paradigm may change across time; progress in a “slow” manner (not abruptly) FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

OLD VALUES NEW VALUES Lack of self appreciation ethic
Achievement ethic Higher life status Better quality of life Traditional gender roles Vague gender roles Success according to cultural definitions Success according to own definitons Traditional family life Alternative family life Belief in industries, institution Belief in oneself Live to work Work to live Worshipping heroes Admiring ideas FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

Old Values New Values Expansionism Pluralism Patriotism
Less nationalistic Unparallel growth High awareness of boundary Industrial Growth Development of information & Services Technology acceptance Technology orientation FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY

UNIVERSAL VALUES There are universal values across race & culture
LOVE & CARE - Bases of moral behaviour are harmony, love & care, helping. - “Ihsan” is a concept to explain the values - With love & “ihsan”, human beings can help each other TRUTHFULNESSJ USTICE FREEDOM FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY