3.  Carbohydrates consist of the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). They have a ratio of hydrogen twice that of carbon and oxygen. In a their basic form, carbohydrates are simple sugars or monosaccharides.  Glucose, fructose, ribose, and galactose are all monosaccharides.  The empirical formula of a carbohydrate is CH 2 O

5.  Dehydration means to remove water. Therefore you are building something up while taking water out. In carbohydrates, an H from one carbohydrate and an OH from another are taken out, which form water. The two carbohydrates then join together and form a bond called a glycosidic linkage.

6.  Hydrolysis is the exact opposite of dehydration synthesis in that instead of taking away water, it is being added. The water molecule breaks apart the bonds and creates monosaccharides from the polymer chain.

7. Carbohydrate’s monomer molecules include glucose, fructose, ribose and galactose.

8.  Cellulose: One of the most prevalent polysaccharides on earth. The structure of it’s polymer chain is linear.  Starch: It is a plant reserve carbohydrate (storage form of glucose). The structure of it’s polymer chain is branched.  Glycogen: Glucose is stored as glycogen in animal liver and muscle cells. The structure of it’s polymer chain is highly branched.

9. Cellulose Starch Glycogen

10.  Carbohydrates are joined by a glycosidic linkage, which is a covalent bond that is formed between two carbohydrate molecules by dehydration synthesis.

11.  Plants store glucose as starch and convert it into cellulose. (Glucose is the product of photosynthesis)  Consumers eat carbohydrates and break polysaccharides into glucose.  Glucose is converted into ATP during cellular respiration to fuel all metabolic processes. (Excess glucose is stored in liver as glycogen)

13.  Lipids are non-polar organic compounds that constitute a broad group of naturally occuring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat soluble vitamins, monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids.  The main biological function of lipids include energy storage, as structural components of cell membranes, and as important signaling molecules.  Lipids consist of the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) arranged as a carbon chain skeleton with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end.

14. Cis-9-octadecenoic acid (Oleic acid) Trans-9-octadecenoic acid (Elaidic acid)

15.  Dehydration in proteins involves the combination of two amino acids as shown. The water molecule comes off like the carbohydrate reaction. The bond in between the two amino acid molecules that forms is called a dipeptide bond.

16.  Hydrolysis is the exact opposite of dehydration synthesis in that you add water instead of removing it, once again.

17.  The class of molecules called lipids is a wide range of structurally different molecules with very different properties, but they have no repeating unit or monomer like proteins or polysaccharides. Lipids also do not have any polymers because they are not linked together in a chain, but instead are linked along side each other. To be a polymer, another molecule would have to be attached in either direction repeatedly.

18.  Fatty acids are non-polar chains of carbon and hydrogen with carboxylic acid at one end. Types of Fatty Acid

19.  Saturated fatty acids do not contain any double bonds (the carbon chain is “saturated” with hydrogen).  Saturated fatty acids tend to be produced in animal tissue and are solid at room temperature.

20.  Unsaturated fatty acids contain double bonds.  Unsaturated fatty acids are produced by plant tissues and tend to be liquid at room temperature.

21.  The type of chemical bonds for lipids are non- polar C-H bonds. The actual bonds that attach the fatty acids to the glycerol are referred to as ester linkages.

22.  Cell membrane structure.  Constitutes a barrier for the cell.  Controls membrane fluidity.  Energy storage (for instance, fats stored in adipose tissue).  Signal transduction (function in the transmission of information in cells).  Lipid vitamins (required for metabolism, usually as coenzymes).

24.  Proteins are polymers of amino acids covalently linked through peptide bonds into a chain.  Most proteins have over 100 amino acids in their structure.  Proteins can have both structural and functional roles within the cell.  There are many different types of structures for proteins.

25.  These proteins form parts of structures.  Keratin is a structural protein that is a component of fingernails and hair.  Collagen is a protein that is found in connective tissue (ligaments etc).

26.  Amino acids are the monomers of proteins (there are 20 different amino acids).  Amino acids are composed of 3 groups, amino group, carboxyl group, r-group.  Polymer molecules of amino acids are when 2 or more amino acids are joined together through a peptide bond.

28.  When 2 amino acids undergo dehydration synthesis they form a dipeptide.  The bond between 2 amino acids is called a peptide bond.  Peptide bonds are strong covalent bonds.

29. Dehydration Synthesis Dipeptide

30.  Primary structure is a simple linear chain of amino acids.  Secondary structure – Protein molecules become twisted due to peptide bonds.  H-bonds create either a spring like shape called an alpha helix or a more linear shape called a beta pleated sheet.

31.  As an alpha helix becomes longer, some amino acids do not fit in the configuration.  This causes kinks in the spiral pattern so that portions of the helix are close together and form more H-bonds, creating a globular shape.  Quaternary structures are groups of tertiary structures (haemoglobin).

33.  Dehydration synthesis (as seen a few slides back) is when a water molecule is removed from two amino acids and they form a peptide bond to make a dipeptide.  Hydrolysis is the exact opposite, where when water is added, the dipeptide breaks apart into two amino acids.

34.  Proteins are used in the cell as enzymes, which catalyze chemical reactions.  Proteins are necessary in animals’ diets, since animals cannot synthesize all the amino acids, they need and must obtain essential amino acids from food.  Many proteins are involved in the process of cell signaling and signal transduction.