1. Chapter 12
Nervous System

2. Outline
Nervous Tissue
The Nerve Impulse
Action Potential
Central Nervous System
The Spinal Cord
The Brain
Peripheral Nervous System
Nerves and Ganglia
Drug Abuse
Degenerative Nervous System Diseases

3. Nervous Tissue
Nervous Tissue contains two types of cells.
Neurons transmit nerve impulses between parts of the nervous system.
Neuroglia support and nourish neurons.

4. Neuron Structure
Neurons are classified according to function.
Sensory neurons take impulses from a sensory receptor to the CNS.
Interneurons receive input from sensory neurons, and other neurons, and then communicate with motor neurons.
Motor neurons take nerve impulse away from the CNS to an effector that carries out responses to environmental change.

5. Neuron Structure
Neurons contain three basic parts.
Cell body contains nucleus and other organelles.
Dendrites receive signals from sensory receptors or other neurons.
Axon conducts nerve impulses.

6. Types of Neurons

7. Myelin Sheath
Some axons are covered by a protective myelin sheath.
Formed by Schwann cells containing myelin in plasma membranes.
Nodes of Ranvier are gaps on the axon with no myelin sheath.

8. Myelin Sheath

9. The Nerve Impulse
The nervous system uses the nerve impulse to convey information.
Resting potential is the voltage level when an axon is not conducting an impulse.
Sodium-potassium pump causes greater concentration of Na+ outside the axon, and greater concentration of K+ inside the axon.
Unequal ion distribution causes inside of axon to be negative relative to the outside.

10. Action Potential
An action potential is a rapid change in polarity across an axomembrane as the nerve impulse occurs.
All-or-none once threshold is reached.
Sodium gates open, allowing Na+ to move inside the axon.
Potassium gates open, allowing K+ to move outside the axon.

11. Transmission across a Synapse
Transmission across a synaptic cleft is carried out by neurotransmitters stored in synaptic vesicles.
Depending on the neurotransmitter and the receptor, the response of the postsynaptic neuron can be towards excitation or inhibition.
Integration is the summing of signals received by a postsynaptic neuron.

12. Integration

13. The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the spinal cord and the brain.
Both are wrapped in protective membranes, meninges, with spaces between meninges filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
CNS is composed of two types of nervous tissue.
Gray matter – Short, nonmyelinated fibers.
White matter - Myelinated axons.

15. The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord extends from the base of the brain through the foramen magnum into the vertebral canal.

17. Functions of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord provides a means of communication between the brain and the peripheral nerves that leave the cord, and is a center for reflex actions.

18. The Brain
The Cerebrum.
The cerebrum, telencephalon, is the largest portion of the human brain.
Communicates with, and coordinates activities of, other parts of the brain.
Divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres.
Divided by longitudinal fissure.

19. The Human Brain

20. The Brain
Gray matter of cerebrum consists of cerebral cortex and basal nuclei.
Cerebral cortex is a highly convoluted outer layer that covers the cerebral hemispheres.
Basal nuclei are masses located deep within white matter.
White matter consists of long myelinated axons organized into tracts.

21. Lobes of Cerebral Hemisphere

22. The Brain
Diencephalon is made up of hypothalamus and thalamus, and circles the third ventricle.
Cerebellum is separated from the brain stem by the fourth ventricle.
The brain stem contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
Reticular formation is a complex network of nuclei and fibers extending the length of the brain stem.

23. Reticular Activating System

24. The Limbic System
Limbic system is a complex network of tracts and nuclei.
Blends primitive emotions and higher mental functions into a united whole.
Composed of hippocampus and amygdala.

25. Limbic System

26. Higher Mental Functions
Memory is the ability to hold a thought in mind or to recall events from the past.
Short-term versus long-term.
Skill memory.
Learning takes place when we retain and utilize past memories.
Language and speech depends on motor centers in the occipital and temporal lobes.

27. Language and Speech

28. Language and Speech
Left and right brain have different functions.
Left Hemisphere:
Verbal, Logical, Analytical, Rational.
Right Hemisphere:
Nonverbal, Intuitive, Creative.

29. Peripheral Nervous System
Composed of nerves and ganglia.
Cranial nerves take impulses to and from the brain.
Spinal nerves take impulses to and from the spinal cord.

30. Cranial and Spinal Nerves

31. Somatic System
Somatic system includes nerves that take sensory information from external sensory receptors to the CNS and motor commands away from the CNS to the skeletal muscles.
Reflexes are automatic responses to a stimulus.

32. Reflex Arc

33. Autonomic System
Autonomic system regulates the activity of cardiac and smooth muscles and glands.
Sympathetic division brings about fight or flight responses.
Parasympathetic division brings about relaxed responses.

34. Drug Abuse
Drugs that affect the nervous system have two general effects.
Impact limbic system.
Promote or decrease action of a particular neurotransmitter.
Drug abuse is apparent when a person takes a drug at a dose level and under circumstances that increase the potential for a harmful effect.

35. Drug Actions at a Synapse

36. Drug Abuse
Alcohol.
Nicotine.
Causes neurons to release dopamine.
Excess dopamine has reinforcing effect that leads to dependence.
Cocaine.
Prevents synaptic uptake of dopamine.
Continued use causes body to produce less dopamine.

37. Drug Abuse
Heroin.
Binds to receptors meant for endorphins.
Continued use causes body to produce fewer endorphins.
Marijuana.
Binds to receptor for anandamide.
Brain impairment?

38. Homeostasis
Governance of internal organs and the regulation of blood and tissue fluid usually takes place below the level of consciousness.
Heart Rate.
Breathing Rate.

39. Degenerative Nervous System Diseases
Alzheimer disease.
Presence of abnormal neurons.
Plaques.
Neurofibrillary tangles.
Parkinson disease.
Overactive basal nuclei due to the degeneration of dopamine-releasing neurons in the brain.

40. Review
Nervous Tissue
The Nerve Impulse
Action Potential
Central Nervous System
The Spinal Cord
The Brain
Peripheral Nervous System
Nerves and Ganglia
Drug Abuse
Degenerative Nervous System Diseases