1. Chapter 4 Principles
The aim of this part of the curriculum design process is to decide how learning can be encouraged.

2. Chapter 4 Principles Assumptions = theoretical underpinnings/basics
Eclectic approach
Elect = choose
Curriculum designers may recycle the same old material.

3. Chapter 4 Principles Definitions Term Definition
Fundamental norms, rules, or values that represent what is desirable and positive for people, groups, organizations, or communities, and help them in determining the rightfulness or wrongfulness of their actions. Principles are more basic than policy and objectives, and are meant to govern both.

4. Chapter 4 Principles Definitions Term Definition
Approach
A set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning, and teaching
Method
An overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected Approach.

5. Chapter 4 Principles Methods and Principles
Very view teachers or researchers now follow any particular method or approach in their language teaching. Practitioners of a method soon find a remarkable similarity between methods that are supposed to be quite different from each other, particularly in the selection and sequencing of the items that make up a course.

6. Chapter 4 Principles
Methods and Principles
This same similarity leads us to suspect that the various published courses are either drawing on the same findings of research and theory or are unquestioningly repeating what other courses have repeated from some previous poorly based piece of curriculum design.

7. Chapter 4 Principles
Methods and Principles
A “method” approach to curriculum design seems to result in some aspects of curriculum design being well thought out and well founded on research but in many aspects being ignored or not well thought out.

8. Chapter 4 Principles Methods and Principles
Educational theories and models should be treated with caution. They are all narratives. They each tell a story, but only one story. They may shed light on one aspect of teaching and Learning but, in the process, cast other aspects into the shadows (Rowland, 1993: 16).

9. Chapter 4 Principles Methods and Principles
One single method of teaching cannot suit all types of learning; common sense indicates that different methods are required in order to achieve different types of learning objectives. Methods of teaching should be selected therefore according to their fitness for specific purposes.

10. Chapter 4 Principles
Methods and Principles
When we find, for example, that a “modern” course is using a syllabus that differs in only minor detail from one used in the 1890s and that does not agree with the findings of substantial research in this area on the frequency of grammar items, then our worst suspicions are justified.

11. Chapter 4 Principles Methods and Principles
The basis of the problems described above is that all the various aspects of curriculum design have not been systematically based on research and theory. This is not because of an absence of suitable research and theory. It is more because of an unwillingness to look at what is already known and to apply it to curriculum design without being distracted by the need to adhere to a method.

12. Chapter 4 Principles
Methods and Principles
The purpose of this chapter is to show that a sensible basis to guide teaching and to help in the design of courses rests on following principles. These principles must be based on research and theory, and must be general enough to allow variety and flexibility in their application to suit the wide range of conditions in which language is taught.

13. Chapter 4 Principles The Twenty Principles
The principles described here are based on a pedagogical perspective, focusing on curriculum design and teacher training. A similar list could be made from a learning perspective. It would also be possible to take a more philosophical stance on principles considering the nature of language, the nature of learning, and the role of culture.

14. Chapter 4 Principles
The Twenty Principles
Each principle in the list is there because it is supported by research and theory in any of three fields: second or foreign language learning, first language learning, and general educational research and theory. None of the principles is unique to language teaching, but could equally well apply to the teaching of mathematics or motorcycle maintenance. Their application, however, must draw as much as possible on research and theory within their field of application.

15. Chapter 4 Principles The Twenty Principles
The principles have been divided into three groups. These three groups represent the three major divisions of the central circle in the curriculum design diagram. The first group of principles deals with content and sequencing. That is, they are concerned with what goes into a language course and the order in which language items appear in the course.

16. The Twenty Principles The subdivisions of principles
Chapter 4 Principles
The Twenty Principles
The subdivisions of principles

17. Chapter 4 Principles
The Twenty Principles
The aim of these principles is to make sure that the learners are gaining something useful from the course. It is possible to run a language course which is full of interesting activities and which introduces the learners to new language items, but which provides a very poor return for the time invested in it.

18. Chapter 4 Principles
The Twenty Principles
This poor return can occur because many of the lessons do not contain anything new to learn, because the new items have very little value in the ordinary use of the language, or because they set out interference conditions which result in a step backwards in learning rather than a step forwards. .

19. Chapter 4 Principles The Twenty Principles
The second group of principles deals with format and presentation. That is, they are concerned with what actually happens in the classroom and during the learning. Most practically, they relate to the kinds of activities used in the course and the ways in which learners process the course material. It is in this aspect of curriculum design that teachers may have their greatest influence on the course. .

20. Chapter 4 Principles The Twenty Principles
The third group of principles deals with monitoring and assessment and to some degree evaluation. In each of these groups, the principles have been ranked in order of their importance, so that the first principle in the group is the most important of that group, the second principle is the next most important and so on. .

21. The Twenty Principles Content and Sequencing
Chapter 4 Principles
The Twenty Principles
Content and Sequencing
Principle
Explanation
Frequency
A language course should provide the best possible coverage of language in use through the inclusion of items that occur frequently in the language, so that learners get the best return for their learning effort.
Strategies and autonomy
A language course should train learners in how to learn a language and how to monitor and be aware of their learning, so that they can become effective and independent language learners.

22. The Twenty Principles Content and Sequencing
Chapter 4 Principles
The Twenty Principles
Content and Sequencing
Principle
Explanation
Spaced retrieval
Learners should have increasingly spaced, repeated opportunities to retrieve and give attention to wanted items in a variety of contexts.
Language system
The language focus of a course needs to be on the generalizable features of the language.
Keep moving forward
A language course should progressively cover useful language items, skills and strategies.

23. The Twenty Principles Content and Sequencing
Chapter 4 Principles
The Twenty Principles
Content and Sequencing
Principle
Explanation
Teachability
The teaching of language items should take account of the most favourable sequencing of these items and should take account of when the learners are most ready to learn them.
Learning burden
The course should help learners make the most effective use of previous knowledge.
Interference
The items in a language course should be sequenced so that items which are learned together have a positive effect on each other for learning and that interference effects are avoided.

24. The Twenty Principles Format and Presentation
Chapter 4 Principles
The Twenty Principles
Format and Presentation
Principle
Explanation
Motivation
As much as possible, the learners should be interested in and excited about learning the language and they should come to value this learning.
Four strands
A course should include a roughly even balance of meaning-focused input, language-focused learning, meaning-focused output and fluency activities.
Comprehensible Input
There should be substantial quantities of interesting comprehensible receptive activity in both listening and reading.

25. The Twenty Principles Format and Presentation
Chapter 4 Principles
The Twenty Principles
Format and Presentation
Principle
Explanation
Fluency
A language course should provide activities aimed at increasing the fluency with which learners can use the language they already know, both receptively and productively.
Output
The learners should be pushed to produce the language in both speaking and writing over a range of discourse types.
Deliberate learning
The course should include language-focused learning on the sound system, spelling, vocabulary, grammar and discourse areas.

26. The Twenty Principles Format and Presentation
Chapter 4 Principles
The Twenty Principles
Format and Presentation
Principle
Explanation
Time on task
As much time as possible should be spent using and focusing on the second language.
Depth of processing
Learners should process the items to be learned as deeply and as thoughtfully as possible.
Integrative motivation
A course should be presented so that the learners have the most favourable attitudes to the language, to users of the language, to teacher’s skill in teaching the language, and to their chance of success in learning language.
Learning style
There should be opportunity for learners to work with the learning material in ways that most suit their individual learning style.

27. The Seven Learning Styles
Chapter 4 Principles
The Seven Learning Styles
Learning Style
Explanation
Visual (spatial):
You prefer using pictures, images, and spatial understanding.
Aural (auditory-musical):
You prefer using sound and music.
Verbal (linguistic):
You prefer using words, both in speech and writing.
Physical (kinesthetic):
You prefer using your body, hands and sense of touch.
Logical (mathematical):
You prefer using logic, reasoning and systems.
Social (interpersonal):
You prefer to learn in groups or with other people.
Solitary (intrapersonal):
You prefer to work alone and use self-study.

28. The Twenty Principles Monitoring and Assessment
Chapter 4 Principles
The Twenty Principles
Monitoring and Assessment
Principle
Explanation
Ongoing needs and environment analysis
The selection, ordering, presentation, and assessment of the material in a language course should be based on a continuing careful consideration of the learners and their needs, the teaching conditions, and the time and resources available.
Feedback
Learners should receive helpful feedback which will allow them to improve the quality of their language use.

29. Chapter 4 Principles Using the List of Principles
The previous discussion of the twenty principles has attempted to explain the principles and to indicate their application in curriculum design. The list of principles however has a much wider range of uses.

30. Chapter 4 Principles Using the List of Principles
❶ It can be used to guide the design of language teaching courses and lessons.
❷ It can be used to evaluate existing courses and lessons.
❸ It can be used to help teachers integrate and contextualize information gained from keeping up with developments in their field. For example, when reading articles from a journal, teachers can try to decide what principle is being addressed by the article and how the article helps in the application of a principle.

31. Chapter 4 Principles Using the List of Principles
❹ It can provide a basis for teachers to use to reflect on their practice and professional development. It may provide a basis for action research within their classrooms. It can help them answer questions like “Is this a good technique?”, “Should I use group work?”, and “Do my learners need to speak a lot in class?”.
❺ It can act as one of many possible reference points in teacher training courses.