2. Chapter 3 Morphology

3. To get a general idea of some features of word ； To understand word-formation processes; To get a general idea of morphology and morphemes; To understand morphological description. Aims

4. Think back how the elementary students or ten-year- old children memorize the following English words? What about you, a university English major? sharpeners, legitimate, respectively, transcription, other-worldly, unsuccessful, antidisestablishmentariansim

5. Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words. Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words. Basic Theories of Morphology

6. What is Word? Lexicon-----Vocanbulary----Word Lexicon in linguistics refers to vocabulary contrasted with grammar. Vocabulary is the total number of words that make up a language.

7. Three senses of “word” A physically definable unit : a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks, e.g. –Phonological: [it iz ‵ wVndEfEl ] –Orthographic: It is wonderful. –Three words are recognized.

8. However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes: –Phonological: [its ‵ wVndEfEl ] –Orthographic: It’s wonderful. –Are they two words or three? Three senses of “word”

9. The common factor underlying a set of forms. walk, walks, walking, walked

10. A grammatical unit: a comparably abstract unit to be set up to show how words work in the grammar of a language sentenceclausephrasewordmorpheme Problem: blackboard Three senses of “word”

11. a. Word is the smallest meaningful unit in the language which can be used independently. ( 戚雨村， 1999) b. Word is the unit that unifies the sound, sense and grammar. It is the basic structural unit of a sentence. ( 陆国强， 1983) c. Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. ( 胡壮麟 ) What is Word?

12. Every word has a fixed sound form and a certain meaning. In other words, a word has two aspects: the external aspect (sound), the internal aspect (meaning). A word is a unity of sound and meaning. A word is a fundamental structure unit of a sentence. The relation between the meaning of a word and its sound is arbitrary or conventional.

13. Identification of Words Stability Words are the most stable of all linguistics units, that is the constituent parts of a complex word have potential for rearrangement. Words are the most stable of all linguistics units, that is the constituent parts of a complex word have potential for rearrangement. Relative uninterruptibility By uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not to be inserted a word even when there are several parts. By uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not to be inserted a word even when there are several parts.

14. Identification of Words A minimum free form This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as the maximum free form and word the minimum free form. Word is the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance. e.g. This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as the maximum free form and word the minimum free form. Word is the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance. e.g. —Is Jane coming tonight? —Possibly. — Hi. — Wonderful.

15. In the grammar course, words can be classified into A and B. What’s A? What’s B?

16. Classification of Words Variable and invariable words Words can be classified according to their variability. Variable words refer to those having different inflections, whereas invariable words refer to those having no inflective forms, e.g. care look before careful looks rarely careless looking always carefulness looked for carelessness since

17. Classification of Words Grammatical words and lexical words In terms of meaning expressed by words, they can be classified into grammatical words and lexical words. Grammatical words are those express grammatical meaning, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. These words serve to link different parts together, so they are also known as functional words.

18. Classification of Words Lexical words are those have lexical meanings, those refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. There words carry the main content of a language, so they are also known as content words.

19. Closed-class words and open-class words A closed-class word is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns etc., are all closed items. Classification of Words

20. An open-class word is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verb, adjectives, adverbs are all open-class items. Classification of Words

21. Word Class ( PARTS OF SPEECH in traditional grammar ) PARTICLES:  the infinitive marker ”to”,  the negative marker “not”,  the subordinate unites in phrasal verb, such as “get by(to continue) ”do up(to fasten) ”...

22. AUXILIARIES AUXILIARIES used to be regarded as verbs because of their unique properties, nowadays, linguists tend to define them as separate word class. Negation: I can’t come. Inversion: Is he coming? Emphasis: He ‘has come Classification of Words

23. PRO-FORM In order to refer collectively to the items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions, linguists define them as a separate word class. Your pen is red. So is hers.(pro-adjective) He knows English better than he did.(pro-verb) She hopes her mother will win and I hope so.(pro- adverb) Tom is hiding there, behind the door.(pro-locative) Classification of Words

24. iv. Determiners

25. * *their all trouble *five the all boys *all this boy *five all girls The following phrases are incorrect. Please correct them in pairs.

26. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language for grammatical analysis. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology. Every morpheme has meaning, either lexical or grammatical. Every morpheme has meaning, either lexical or grammatical. A single word may consist of one or more morphemes. A single word may consist of one or more morphemes. Morpheme

27. A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. E.g. Tourists: -tour (one minimal unit) -ist (meaning “person who does something”) -s (a third unit of grammatical function indicating plurality) Morpheme

28. Example: boyish boyish boy: a young, male human being boy: a young, male human being -ish: having the quality of -ish: having the quality of boyish: having the quality of a young, male boyish: having the quality of a young, male human being a word over 5 morphemes a word over 5 morphemes Antdisestablishmentarianism AntdisestablishmentarianismAnti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism ( 国家对教会不予承认论, 国教废除论 )

29. Morphemes that can stand alone as words are called Free Morphemes. Morphemes that must be attached to another one are called Bound Morphemes. Now, in the word “boys” 1) which morpheme is free? 2) which one is bound?

30. Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, e.g. friend as in unfriendliness. Roots may be – –free: those that can stand by themselves, e.g. black+board; nation+-al; or – –bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, e.g. -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.

31. Base: a morpheme to which an affix is added, e.g. – –friendroot = base – –friendlyroot/base + suffix > base – –unfriendlyprefix + base > base – –unfriendliness prefix + base + suffix > base

32. Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added, e.g. friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es. Inflection: grammatical endings, e.g. plural, tense, comparative, etc. Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, e.g. friend+-ly > friendly.

33. the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into – –prefix (dis-, un-) – –suffix (-en, -ify). – –Infix (feet)

34. Bound morphemes can be classified into two categories: Derivational morphemes recite---recitation---recital Inflectional morphemes boy’s, toys, walked

35. Eight inflectional morphemes –‘s (possessive) –s (plural) –s (3rd person present singular) –ing (present participle) –ed (past tense) –ed (past participle) –en (past participle) –est and –er (superlative and comparative degree)

36. Lexical morphemes are called an open class of words because we can create new lexical morphemes. Functional morphemes are called a closed class of words.

37. The chart of the different categories of morphemes Lexical morphemes (work, house, kind) Free morphemes Functional morphemes (and, if, or, but) Derivational morphemes (-er, -ness, -ly) Bound morphemes Inflectional morphemes (-ed, -er, -est)

39. Morphological rules of word formation Morphological rules of word formation The ways words are formed are called morphological rules. The ways words are formed are called morphological rules. Ex: un + inhabit + able (un + adj = not – adjective) Ex: un + inhabit + able (un + adj = not – adjective) un + decided (un + adj form derived from a verb) un + decided (un + adj form derived from a verb) Some morphological rules can be productive but some are less. Some morphological rules can be productive but some are less.

40. Compounds: stringing words together Same category: landlady, blue-black, icy-cold Same category: landlady, blue-black, icy-cold Category keeping the grammatical category of the final word: head-strong, pickpocket Category changed keeping the grammatical category of the final word: head-strong, pickpocket Compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence, `redcoat, `greenhouse; red `coat, green `house Compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence, `redcoat, `greenhouse; red `coat, green `house

41. The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. For example, redcoat ( 在美国独立战争中服役的英国士兵 ), bigwig ( 有重大影响的人 ), highbrow, jack-in-a- box (a tropical tree), turncoat (a tractor) The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. For example, redcoat ( 在美国独立战争中服役的英国士兵 ), bigwig ( 有重大影响的人 ), highbrow, jack-in-a- box (a tropical tree), turncoat (a tractor) Compounding is then a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.

42. Lexical Change Lexical change proper （特有词汇变化） Lexical change proper （特有词汇变化） Phonological change Phonological change Morpho-syntactical change Morpho-syntactical change Semantic change Semantic change

43. Give examples of English words are borrowed from other languages?

44. Invention Invention With the development of economy and science and technology, new words spring up like mushrooms, e.g. clone, e-mail, plasma television, VCD, DVD, DJ, skyscraper, dry-wash, shampoo, digital watch, digital television, broad band, modem, basic language, multimedia resource centers, computer support services, disk, UFO etc. With the development of economy and science and technology, new words spring up like mushrooms, e.g. clone, e-mail, plasma television, VCD, DVD, DJ, skyscraper, dry-wash, shampoo, digital watch, digital television, broad band, modem, basic language, multimedia resource centers, computer support services, disk, UFO etc. Lexical Change

45. Invention/Coinage –Mostly brand names: –Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, Lycra Lexical Change

46. Blending （拼缀法） Blending is a relatively complex form of Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words. compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words. Lexical Change

47. Blending –transfer+resistor>transistor –smoke+fog>smog –motorist+hotel>motel –breakfast+lunch>brunch –modulator+demodulator>modem –dance+exercise>dancercise –advertisement+editorial>advertorial –education+entertainment>edutainment –information+commercial>infomercial

48. Lexical Change Abbreviation : also called clipping, a new word Abbreviation : also called clipping, a new word is created by cutting the final part. advertisement ad advertisement ad bicycle bike bicycle bike brassiere bra brassiere bra delicatessen deli delicatessen deli professor prof professor prof television telly television telly

49. cutting the initial part cutting the initial part areoplane plane areoplane plane helicopter copter helicopter copter caravan van caravan van omnibus bus omnibus bus telephone phone telephone phone cutting both the initial and final parts influenza flu influenza flu refrigerator fridge refrigerator fridge detective tec detective tec

50. Acronym （缩略语） Acronym （缩略语） Acronym is made up from the first letters of the Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. e.g. BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation VOA: Voice of America VOA: Voice of America GMT: Greenwich Mean time GMT: Greenwich Mean time IOC: International Olympic Committee IOC: International Olympic Committee ISBN: International Standard Book Number ISBN: International Standard Book Number UN: the United Nations UN: the United Nations OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Lexical Change

51. Back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language, e.g. Back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language, e.g. 1) from nouns 1) from nouns swindler > swindle burglar> bugle swindler > swindle burglar> bugle beggar> beg editor> edit beggar> beg editor> edit author> auth emotion> emote author> auth emotion> emote donation> donate aggression> aggress donation> donate aggression> aggress Lexical Change

52. 2) from adjectives, e.g. peevish> peeve （气恼） gloomy> gloom cosy> cose/ coze lazy> laze greedy> greed gruesome> grue （因害怕而发抖） 3) from words ending in –ling, e.g. sidling> sidle （侧身而行） darkling> darkle （变阴暗） groveling> grovel （匍匐） Lexical Change

53. Borrowing Borrowing Greek: flokati, apocynthion, electricity, atom Greek: flokati, apocynthion, electricity, atom Latin: cancer, tumor, injunction, alibi, i.e., e.g., etc Latin: cancer, tumor, injunction, alibi, i.e., e.g., etc French: government, country, mortgage, entail French: government, country, mortgage, entail Spanish: macho, flotilla, grandee, embargo Spanish: macho, flotilla, grandee, embargo Italian: autostrada, cica, fresco, sonsta Italian: autostrada, cica, fresco, sonsta German: gemutlich, hamburger, dock, thick-milk German: gemutlich, hamburger, dock, thick-milk Chinese: taji, chow mien, wok, kung-fu Chinese: taji, chow mien, wok, kung-fu Japanese: Jodo Japanese: Jodo Lexical Change

54. BorrowingLoanwords The borrowing of LOANWORDS is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adoption to the phonological system of the new language. (tea from Chinese ) The borrowing of LOANWORDS is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adoption to the phonological system of the new language. (tea from Chinese )Loanblend This is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. (coconut from Spanish, Chinatown from Chinese) This is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. (coconut from Spanish, Chinatown from Chinese)

55. Lexical Change Loanshift （转移借词） : a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. bridge (Italian: ponte: a card game); artificial satellite (Russian: sputnik) bridge (Italian: ponte: a card game); artificial satellite (Russian: sputnik) Loan translation （翻译借词） : a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language. This is also called Calque, which may be a word, a phrase, or even a short sentence. free verse (Latin: verse libre); black humour( French: humour noir); found object (French: objet trouve) free verse (Latin: verse libre); black humour( French: humour noir); found object (French: objet trouve)

56. Lexical Change Analogical creation: the principle of Analogical creation can account for the coexistence of two forms, regular and irregular in the conjugation of some English verbs. Hardware: software, shareware, vaporware, liveware, Hardware: software, shareware, vaporware, liveware, dreamware'. dreamware'. `men's wear, ladies' wear, underwear, sleepwear, `men's wear, ladies' wear, underwear, sleepwear, eyewear, legwear, sportswear, skiwear eyewear, legwear, sportswear, skiwear

57. 妻子？ 怎么，不是指 男人的配偶吗？

58. Semantic Change There are 3 kinds of semantic changes. Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its original specific sense to a relatively general one. Word used to be now means holiday holy day a day for rest holiday holy day a day for rest bird young bird any kind of bird bird young bird any kind of bird task tax imposed a piece of work task tax imposed a piece of work

59. offend to strike against to create or excite anger bird young bird any kind of bird quarantine forty days a period of time under enforced isolation companion a person with whom you share bread a person who accompanies you pile heap of stone a quantity of objects stacked and thrown together task tax imposed a piece of work (1) Broadening

60. Semantic Change Narrowing: The original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to specific sense.” Meat” in 17th century means “food’, now it refers to “the edible flesh of mammals.” Word used to be now means girl young person of either sex young woman girl young person of either sex young woman deer beast a particular kind of animal deer beast a particular kind of animal knight youth a medieval gentleman-soldier knight youth a medieval gentleman-soldier

61. (2) Narrowing camp open field a place where a body of men are temporarily lodged in tents girl young person of either sex young woman liquidliquid an alcoholic beverage by distillation orator one who speaks a person skilled in the art of public address hounddog a special kind of dog

62. Semantic Change Meaning shift All semantic changes involves meaning shift.Here it means the departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage. All semantic changes involves meaning shift.Here it means the departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage. Class shift By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution.This process of word formation is known as zero-derivation, or conversion. By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution.This process of word formation is known as zero-derivation, or conversion. engineer N. a person trained in a branch of engineering. V. to act as an engineer V. to act as an engineer

63. Semantic Change Folk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous. A popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase. –history: Old French < Latin < Greek historia, meaning 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrative'. –his story > her story

64. Morphosyntactic change Morphological change: –third person singular present tense: –-(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth > -(e)s: does, goes, has, finds -(e)s: does, goes, has, finds –the campus of the university > the university’s campus the university’s campus

65. Syntactic change: – –He saw you not. > He didn’t see you. – –I know not where to hide my head. > I don’t know where to hide my head. Fusion/blending: – –equally good + just as good > equally as good – –It’s no use getting there before nine + There’s no use in getting there before nine > There’s no use getting there before nine. Morphosyntactic change

66. Phonological change Loss of sound: –loss of the velar fricative /x/ which existed in O.E. –loss of sound in fast speech, e.g. library, laboratory e.g. library, laboratory –and > ’n in connected speech, e.g. rock-’n-roll e.g. rock-’n-roll

67. Addition of sound: – –L. studium > O.F. estudie, Sp. estudio, Port. estudo – –English: rascal > rapscallion Metathesis: changing the sequence of sound – –O.E. brid > bird, O.E. ox/ax > ask Assimilation: – –impossible, immovable – –irregular, irresponsible – –illogical, illegal Phonological change

68. Orthographic change Change of spelling: –Iesus > Jesus –sate > sat –Sunne > Sun