2. Levels of Organization: All organisms are made of cells. Most cells are organized into functional units called tissues. The four basic tissues of the human body are: epithelial, muscle, connective, and nervous tissues.

3. Levels of Organization: Organs are groups of tissues that perform specialized jobs. Examples of organs are: eyes and stomach A group of organs that work together to carry out a major life function is called an organ system.

4. Levels of Organization: CELLS ----> TISSUE ----> ORGAN ----> ORGAN SYSTEM

5. Skeletal System: The skeletal system provides the following: 1. support 2. place for muscle attachment 3. protection for vital organs 4. manufactures blood cells 5. stores calcium and phosphorus

6. Skeletal System: The skeletal system consists of the following: axial skeleton: skull and bones of the back and chest appendicular skeleton: bones associated with the limbs. Help, I’m falling apart

7. Skeletal System: The place where two bones meet is called a joint. There are five types of joints: immovable: skull ball and socket: shoulder hinge: elbow gliding: wrist pivot: neck

8. Ball and Socket Joint

9. Hinge Joint

10. Saddle Joint

11. Pivot Joint

13. Muscular System Muscles are used for movement Muscles are either voluntary or involuntary –Involuntary : muscles not under conscious control –Voluntary: muscles are under conscious control

14. Muscular System There are three types of muscles 1.Smooth – found in the walls of hollow organs like the stomach. (Involuntary) 2.Skeletal – found in the muscles that are attached to the bones. (Voluntary) 3.Cardiac – found only in the heart (Involuntary)

16. Respiratory System: REVIEW: Formula for Cellular Respiration: C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 -  6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + energy (ATP) ReactantsProducts ( in mitochondria)

17. Respiratory System: The function of the respiratory system is to exchange gases between blood and the air. Oxygen is inhaled and passed into the blood from small air sacs found in the lungs. These sacs are called alveoli.

18. Respiratory System: Carbon dioxide is passed to the lungs by the blood. The CO 2 is then diffused out of the blood into the alveoli. Carbon dioxide is then forced out of the lungs when you exhale.

20. Respiratory System: The major organs of the respiratory system are: nasal cavity: aids in warming and filtering out the air that is inhaled. pharynx: area at the back of the mouth larynx: upper part of the “wind pipe”

21. Respiratory System: trachea: windpipe; it is lined with cilia that prevent foreign particles from reaching the lungs. bronchi: branches of the trachea, leading into the lungs that are covered in cilia to prevent foreign particles from reaching the lungs lungs: organs composed of alveoli, and the place where gas exchange with the blood occurs.

23. Circulatory System: The circulatory system has the following functions: 1. pump blood through the blood vessels 2. carry oxygen from the lungs and nutrients to all the body cells. 3. carry hormones to their target tissues 4. take carbon dioxide back to the lungs 5. take other wastes to the excretory system

24. Circulatory System: The organs of the circulatory system are: heart: organ made of cardiac muscle, that pumps blood throughout the body. blood vessels: structures used to carry blood throughout the body (veins, arteries, and capillaries)

25. Circulatory System: arteries: elastic vessel that transports oxygenated blood away from the heart. (the pulmonary artery takes unoxygenated blood to the lungs.) veins: large vessels that return unoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart. (the pulmonary vein take oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart) capillaries: smallest blood vessels with walls only one cell thick. Site where nutrients, oxygen,and carbon dioxide diffuse between blood and tissues.

26. Pathway of Circulation Through Blood Vessels:

27. Label the Diagram

28. In from Lungs In from Body Out to Body Out To lungs Blue= deoxygenated Red = oxygenated LUNGS BODY Trace the Flow of Blood

29. Flow of Blood Through the Heart and Lungs Superior/ Inf. Vena Cava Rt. Atrium Rt. Ventricle Pulmonary Artery Lungs Pulmonary Vein Left Atrium Left Ventricle Aorta Body

32. Blood typing Determining blood type is necessary before a person can receive a blood transfusion because the red blood cells of incompatible blood types could clump together, causing death. Your immune system recognizes the red blood cells as belonging to you. If cells with a different surface molecule enter your body, your immune system will attack them.

33. Blood typing

34. Phenotype A (review) The l A allele is dominant to i, so inheriting either the l A i alleles or the l A l A alleles from both parents will give you type A blood

35. Phenotype B (review) The l B allele is also dominant to I, so to have type B blood, you must inherit the l B allele from one parent and either another l B allele or the i allele from the other.

36. Phenotype AB (review) The l A and l B alleles are codominant. This means that if you inherit the l A allele from one parent and the l B allele from the other, your red blood cells will produce both surface molecules and you will have type AB blood.

37. Phenotype O (review) The i allele is recessive and produces no surface molecules. Therefore, if you are homozygous ii, your blood cells have no surface molecules and you have blood type O.

38. Multiple alleles determining human blood types Human Blood Types l A l A or l A li l B l B or l B i lA lBlA lB ii Genotypes Surface Molecules Phenotypes A B A and B None A B AB O

39. Blood groups % of U.S. population

40. Serum Universal recipient Universal donor

41. Blood Type Antigens on RBC Antibodies in Plasma May Donate To May Receive From AAAnti BA,ABA, O BBAnti AB, ABB,O ABA, BNoneABAll (A, B, O) ONoneA, BAll (A,B,AB) O

42. Digestive System: The function of the digestive system are: 1. receiving nutrients (food) 2. breaking food down 3. absorbing food and nutrients 4. eliminating materials that are not absorbed or digested.

43. Digestive System: The digestive system includes the following organs: mouth: organ that receives and begins the breakdown of food tongue: organ that helps in breaking down food

44. Digestive System: teeth: organ that helps in breaking down food salivary gland: gland that secretes saliva, an enzyme that breaks down food pharynx: the back of the mouth esophagus: muscular tube that moves food from the mouth to the stomach by smooth muscle contractions

45. Upper Digestive System

46. Digestive System: stomach: muscular digestive organ that secretes acids and enzymes liver: gland that produces many chemicals needed for digestion that are delivered to the small intestine gallbladder: bile-storing organ; aids digestion

48. Digestive System: pancreas: gland that produces digestive enzymes. small intestine: narrow, muscular tube where digestion is completed; connects stomach to large intestine. large intestine: muscular tube into which indigestible material is passed to the rectum for elimination.

51. Endocrine System: This system controls all of the metabolic activities of the body. This system includes all of the glands that secrete hormones in the body. Made of many glands that release chemical products (hormones) into the bloodstream which target cells elsewhere Hormones: chemical messages that affect target cells Roller coaster thrills are due to hormones.

52. Endocrine System: hormones: chemical secreted by a gland that affects another part of an organism; hormones play a key role in regulating metabolism of digestion, growth, and reproduction. –examples of hormones: estrogen, testosterone, growth hormone gland: fluid secreting cell or group of cells; produce fluids such as hormones –examples of glands: pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, ovaries, pancreas, testes

53. Types of Body Glands Exocrine: release secretions through ducts directly to organs (ex: sweat, tears, digestive juices) Endocrine: release chemicals directly into the blood stream Sweat gland and ducts

55. Pituitary Gland Secretes 9 hormones that directly regulate body functions and controls other endocrine glands –Growth hormone (GH) –Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) –Oxytocin –Prolactin –TSH –FSH and LH (reproductive hormones)

56. Thyroid Gland Regulates body metabolism Too much thyroxine = hyperthyroidism (high metabolism, jittery, weight loss) Too little thyroxine = hypothyroidism (lower metabolism and body temperature, weight gain) Lack of iodine = goiter Thyroid Hormone x12,000 by Dee Breeger

57. Parathyroid Hormone Glands surrounding thyroid Helps to regulate calcium levels in blood

58. Adrenal Glands Release hormones that help people prepare and deal with stress Epinephrine Norepinephrine Commonly called adrenaline The adrenal gland makes several hormones. The inner zone (medulla) makes adrenaline. The outer zone (cortex) supplies cortisol as well as other hormones controlling salt balance (aldosterone) and sexual development

59. Pancreas Regulates blood sugar (glucose) levels Insulin Glucagon Diabetes: inability to regulate blood glucose, unable to produce or respond properly to insulin

60. Reproductive Glands Gonads: produces gametes and produces reproductive hormones Testosterone Estradiol (estrogen) Testosterone Estradiol

62. Excretory System (Urinary System): The functions of the excretory system are: 1. eliminate waste products of amino acid breakdown from the blood 2. maintain water balance 3. maintain salt balance in the blood 4. store and transport urine out of the body

63. Excretory System (Urinary System): The major organs of the urinary system: kidney: removes nitrogenous wastes from the blood; controls the sodium level and pH of the blood. ureters: tubes that transport urine from each kidney to the urinary bladder bladder: bag made of smooth muscle that stores urine, (solution of wastes) urethra: tube through which urine is eliminated from the body

64. Nephron

66. Reproductive System: The function of the reproductive systems is to produce gametes (n) through the process of meiosis.

67. Reproductive System: The male reproductive system consists of the following organs: scrotum: sac that contains the testes; maintains sperm at a lower temperature than body temperature. testes: place where sperm production takes place

68. Sperm cell diagram

69. Reproductive System: epididymis: coiled tube within the scrotum in which the sperm complete their maturation. vas deferens: a duct that transports sperm from the epididymis toward the ejaculatory ducts and the urethra. seminal vesicles: glands that secrete a mucous-like fluid rich in sugar, that provides energy for the sperm cells.

70. Reproductive System: bulbourethral gland: gland that secretes a fluid that helps the sperm survive in the acidic vagina. prostate gland: gland that secretes a fluid that helps sperm move and survive. urethra: tube that sperm travel through when ejaculated. penis: organ that surrounds the urethra and transfers sperm cells into the female reproductive tract.

72. Reproductive System: The female reproductive system contains the following organs: ovary: female reproductive organ that produces eggs. oviduct (fallopian tube): tube that transports eggs from ovary to uterus uterus: muscular organ in which young are developed and protected; animals having litters usually have uterine horns

73. Female Reproductive System Primary function: produce ova and prepare the body to nourish a developing embryo Typically only one mature ova is produced per menstrual cycle. Color modified SEM of egg

74. Menstrual cycle Human females undergo monthly cycles where the uterine lining is prepared in the event of fertilization. The lining is shed or released if fertilization does not take place. There is little blood, mostly water and proteins, that line the uterine walls.

75. Charting the Menstrual Cycle LH, FSH, Estrogen, Progesterone control the development of the egg and the building of the uterine lining.

76. vagina: the passage way that leads from the uterus to the outside of the body

77. Stages of Human Development One sperm cell must fertilize the egg within the Fallopian tubes (oviduct) within a few hours of ovulation. The fertilized egg undergoes mitosis, where it then travels to the uterus for implantation. SEM of sperm fertilizing egg

78. Sperm Cells on Ovum Surface

79. Stages of Human Development SEM of fertilized egg (2n) = zygote

80. Stages of Human Development Blastocyst: hollow ball that implants in uterus lining 2 cells 4 cells 8 cells

81. Fertilized egg development

82. Stages of Human Development Gastrula: in folding of ball, producing 3 germ layers

83. Stages of Human Development Neurulation: process of nervous system development Some mesoderm tissue  notocord Parts of the notocord (neural groove)  neural tube to hold spinal cord and nervous system

84. Stages of Human Development Embryo: up to eight weeks –Placenta: tissue attached to uterus where exchanges with mother takes place –Umbilical cored: attaches embryo to placenta Fetus: after eight weeks, human characteristics develop

85. Fetus Position within the Womb

86. 40 and 45 day human fetus

87. Stages of Human Development 5 weeks

88. Stages of Human Development 2 months

89. Stages of Human Development 12 weeks18 weeks

90. Stages of Human Development 20 weeks24 weeks

91. Stages of Human Development 7 months8 months

92. Delivery and Birth

93. Afterbirth (placenta & umbilical cord)

94. Nervous System: The function of the nervous system is to act as the body’s control center and coordinate the body’s activities. The organs of the nervous system are: brain: the control center of the central nervous system

95. Nervous System: spinal cord: a bundle of nerve cells that transmit neural impulses from the brain to the body and from the body to the brain. neuron: the basic unit of the nervous system; cells that conduct impulses throughout the nervous system.

96. Neuron: specialized nerve cell

97. Brain Cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem, hypothalamus, thalamus

98. Cerebrum: voluntary actions Separated from left and right hemispheres with the corpus callosum Each hemisphere deals with the opposite side of the body. 4 major cerebrum lobes

99. Cerebellum: body coordination Located at the back of the brain Helps to maintain balance and graceful movements

100. Teen Girl Squad by the Brothers Chap

101. Brain stem: involuntary actions Made up of the pons and medulla oblongata Controls breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, etc. Conducts brain signals to the rest of the body

102. Thalamus and hypothalamus Thalamus: receives messages from body and transmits signals to the appropriate brain parts Hypothalamus: controls pituitary gland (hormone production) and senses hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, body temperature

103. Peripheral nervous system Somatic: regulates activities under conscious control (ex: lift arm) and reflex arcs (rapid responses)

104. Peripheral nervous system Autonomic: controls involuntary actions (ex: increased heart rate or blood flow The gastric antrum to the left is under autonomic control.

106. Lymphatic System (Immune System): The lymphatic system is involved in fighting disease and tissue repair. Organs of the lymphatic system are as follows: lymph: water and dissolved substances that diffuse from the bloodstream

107. Lymphatic System (Immune System): lymph nodes: small mass of tissue that filters lymph lymphocyte: type of white blood cell that defends the body against foreign substances

108. Lymphatic System (Immune System): Innate Immune System: 1. Skin: the first line of defense 2. Secretions that destroy microbes: mucus, sweat, tears, and saliva 3. Phagocytosis of microbes 4. Inflammation of body tissues: redness, swelling, pain and heat

109. Lymphatic System (Immune System): 5. Complement: protein molecules attach to pathogens and help the body destroy the pathogen by damaging their plasma membranes and attracting an increased number of phagocytes.

110. Lymphatic System (Immune System): Adaptive Immune System: Immunity - Defense against a specific pathogen by building up a resistance to it is called immunity. antigen: foreign substances that stimulate the production of antibodies in the blood. antibody: protein in the blood produced in reaction to antigens

111. Lymphatic System (Immune System):

112. The Integumentary System Skin –Epidermis –Dermis Hair Nails

113. The Skin Largest body organ Barrier against infection (first line of defense) and injury Regulates body temperature with sweating Removes waste products from body metabolism (salts) Provides UV protection Manufactures vitamin D

114. The Epidermis Outer layer made of dead cells Inner layer made of living cells –undergoes mitosis quickly to push older cells to the surface –makes keratin protein which strengthens outer cells

115. Melanocytes Cells in the epidermis that produce melanin, a dark brown pigment Helps protect skin against UV damage

116. The Dermis Layer of skin beneath the epidermis Lots of collagen fibers, blood vessels, nerve endings, sensory receptors, smooth muscles, and hair follicles

117. Sweat glands in the dermis layer Sweat glands secrete water, salts, calcium, and other metabolic waste.

118. Sebaceous glands in the dermis Produce oily secretions (sebum) that keeps the keratin-rich epidermis supple and waterproof Acne: When sebaceous glands become infected or blocked, a whitehead or blackhead forms.

120. Skin Cancer When skin cells are overexposed to UV rays, they can overgrow (excessive mitosis) and become cancerous. Precautions: sunglasses, sunscreen, hat, long sleeves, avoiding tanning (natural or artificial)

121. Human Hair Grows from hair follicles, tube like pocket of epidermal cells that extend into the dermis Hair grows from the base. Sebum helps maintain hair condition. Human hair SEM from Rice University

122. Hair functions Head hair: protects the body from UV exposure and for warm Nostril hairs, ear hairs, and eyebrows/eyelashes: prevents dirt and particles from entering the body Body hairs: helps with sensory perception By the University of Wales Bioimaging Lab

123. Seriously long ear hair The World’s Longest Ear Hair – 10.2 cm B D Tyagi of Bhopal (India) http://news.bbc.co.uk/.../ newsid_1805000/1805342.stm

124. Nails Nails grow from the nail root, near the tips of fingers and toes. Average growth rate: 3 mm/month Evolutionary function: protection

125. Nails