1. Chapter 8 Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
APES
Chapter 8
Biodiversity and Conservation Biology

2. Different Levels of Diversity
Species Diversity: Differences in genes… interbreeding is possible… Looking at Species and Subspecies levels
Genetic Diversity: Differences in DNA composition of individuals w/in species or populations
Ecosystem Diversity: the number and variety of ecosystems w/in an area

3. Our Planet of Life Species: Biodiverstiy
Numbers- relative numbers within an area; regionally, globally, etc.
Species Richness: number of species
Taxonomy: King Plays Chess On Fat Guys Stomach
Biodiversity exists BELOW Species:
Subspecies: populations that occur in different geographic areas and differ from one another in some characteristic(s).
Formed by same process as speciation, but falls short of divergence that creates new species
Canus lupus famillarus (dom dog), Canus lupus dingo (dingo)
Polytypic = many subspecies vs monotypic = no subspecies

4. Subspecies: the level below a species
Subspecies = populations of species that occur in different areas and differ slightly from each other
Divergence stops short of separating the species
Subspecies are denoted with a third part of the scientific name
Siberian tiger = Panthera tigris altaica
Bengal tiger = Panthera tigris tigris

5. Malayan Tiger
Panthera tigris jacksoni
Bengal Tiger
Panthera tigris tigris
Siberian Tiger Panthera tigris altaica 
South Chinese Tiger
Panthera tigris amoyensis
Indo-Chinese Tiger
Panthera tigris corbetti
Sumatran Tiger
Panthera tigris sumatrae

6. Tigers
You tube it ;)
You Tube: Planet in Peril
NY Times

7. Big Take Home Message:
Immigration, Emigration, Local Extinctions may cause increases or decreases in local Species Richness numbers, however……………
ONLY speciation and extinction can change Species Richness globally!!!

8. Genetic Diversity
Encompasses differences in DNA composition among individuals w/in species and populations
Provides raw material for adaptation to local environments
Subspecies w/in tigers: thin coat of the Bengal Tiger, vs thick coat of the Siberian Tiger
More genetic diversity, stronger the population
Populations w/little genetic diversity are vulnerable to environmental change
Disease, inbreeding depression (offspring are weak and/or defective)

9. Ecosystem Diversity Number and variety of ecosystems
Can also refer to biotic community types or habitats w/in specified areas.
Can also refer to geographic arrangement of habitat, community or ecosystem at landscape level if large area
Monoculture crop of corn vs. coral reef; reef will have much more diversity

10. Some Hold More than Others
The number one species on Earth is?????
Insect
What type of insect???????
Beetle……. 40% of all insects are beetles!!!!
Different reasons for numbers
Allopatric speciation
Low extinction rate
Adaptive radiation

11. Insects outnumber all other species

12. Do we know all the #’s? No
We can estimate: from 5-30 million different species
Many reasons for this
Size: many are small and overlooked
Many have been classified wrong: dolphins
Exploration of certain areas is very poor
Entomologist Terry Erwin found 163 beetle species living on one tree in C. Amer used insecticide fog est. ~8,150,000 sp of beetle worldwide!!

13. Still Finding Species? YES!!! 2005 New Guinea:
40 Species of vertebrates, plants, butterflies in less than 1 month
Same area, another 50 species from marine env!!
Nov 1st 2012, 9 Brazillian Spiders!! Tarantula
Sept 15, 2012, New African Monkey Monkey
June 7th 2011, Madagascar critters!! Madagascar

14. Uneven Distribution
Latitudinal Gradient: Species richness increases as you approach the equator:
Plant productivity
Climate Stability
These factors help ensure biodiversity- many different types of critters can co-exist here
These are generally occupied by specialists: generalists occupy areas of varying change, but stable conditions allow for more specialized lifestyles
For any area: diversity increases with increase in diverse habitats
Canada has 30–100 species of breeding birds, while Costa Rica has more than 600 species

16. Activity: Biodiversity Extinction Pamphlet: Overharvest
Due Tuesday, November 20th, 2012
Choose 7-10 endangered species that are monitored because they are used as a food/aphrodesiac/drug/trophy or medicine
Create a pamphlet (of sorts) including;
Why its endangered, where it is located, what body part(s) is used and how it is used (soup, powder, stuffed, etc.), fines if caught with it, any efforts to alleviate problem
Your choice of medium, be sure to include sources!!

17. Is Biodiversity Important?
Extinctions
Red List: updated list of sp. Facing high risk of extinction.
2012: 25% of mammals, 33% reef-building coral, 13% birds, 44% amphibians, 30% conifers. UNACCEPABLE!!!
In the US over the last 500 yrs: 237 fauna, 30 flora
Bali Tiger: 40’s, Caspian Tiger: 70’s, Javan Tiger: 80’s

18. Biodiversity Loss and Extinction
When the last member of a species dies, the species is thought to be EXTINCT
When a particular population disappears, but not the entire species it is EXTIRPATION
This can lead to extinction
Tigers have been extirpated, and are on their way to extinction
Is this a natural process?
Of course; 99% of all sp that have ever lived are extinct

19. Add Humans and You Get….
Before humans, extinctions occurred at a relative pace
Background Rate of Extinction
Typically it has an annual rate of one extinction per 1 – 10 million species
In the past 440 million years, there have been 5 mass extinctions
Each eliminated more than 1/5th of families, least ½ of the species

20. 6th Extinction is Upon Us
2 differences:
Humans have caused it
We will suffer as a result of it

21. Humans and Extinctions

22. Outlook
Scientists calculate that the current rate of extinction (man induced) is 100-1,000 X that of the background extinction rate
1 extinction per 1-10 million species
Projected rate will increase 10 fold or more in future decades!!!
Since 1970, 58 fish species, 9 bird species, and 1 mammal species have gone extinct.
UNACCEPTABLE!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

23. Activity
Page : explain what IUCN is, what the RED LIST is, and what the 2007 report states.
Page : what is the UNEP, and what does it measure
Page : what are the major causes of biodiversity loss? Give exaples and details of each.
EXTRA CREDIT!!!
Research and decide how much one Mountain Gorilla is worth (hint: we are not talking about on the black mrkt; factor in his niche, trophic level,etc

24. Lets Review From yesterday,
What is IUCN?
How does the 2008 red-list differ from 2012?
What is UNEP?
What are the major causes of Biodiversity Loss?
Living Planet Index: UNEP (United Nations Env Programme), summarizes trends in pop. Of 887 t. sp, 458 fw sp, 341 m sp
, Index fell by 28%.
Most biodiversity on Tropical regions.

25. Causes of Biodiversity Loss
Reasons for biodiversity losses are multifaceted, complex, and hard to determine.
Four primary causes of population decline are:
Habitat alteration
Invasive species
Pollution
Overharvesting
Global climate change now is the fifth cause.
Each factor is intensified by human population growth and resource consumption.

26. Habitat Alteration The greatest cause of biodiversity loss
Farming simplifies communities
Grazing modifies grassland structure and species composition
Clearing forests removes resources that organisms need.
Hydroelectric dams turn rivers into upstream reservoirs and affect floodplains downstream.
Urbanization and suburban sprawl reduce natural communities.
A few species (i.e., pigeons, rats) benefit from changing habitats.
Less than 1% of North America’s Great Plains remains, and grassland bird populations have declined 82–99%.

27. Invasive Species
Introduction of non-native species to new environments
Accidental: zebra mussels
Intentional: food crops
Island species haven’t evolved defenses and are very vulnerable.
Invaders have no natural predators, competitors, or parasites.
Cost billions of dollars in economic damage each year

28. Pollution Harms organisms in many ways
Air pollution degrades forest ecosystems.
Water pollution adversely affects fish and amphibians.
Agricultural runoff harms terrestrial and aquatic species.
The effects of oil and chemical spills on wildlife are dramatic and well known.
Although pollution is a substantial threat…
It tends to be cause less damage than habitat alteration or invasive species.

29. Overharvesting
Vulnerable species are large, few in number, long-lived, and have few young (K-selected species).
The Siberian tiger is hunted without rules and regulations.
The early 1990s saw increased tiger poaching because of powerful economic incentives.
Many other species affected: Atlantic gray whale, sharks, gorillas
Today the oceans contain only 10% of the large animals they once did.

30. Climate Change
Our manipulation of earth’s climate system is having global impacts on biodiversity.
Emissions of greenhouse gases warm temperatures.
Modifies global weather patterns and increases the frequency of extreme weather events
Increases stress on populations and forces organisms to shift their geographic ranges
Most animals and plants will not be able to cope.

31. Warming has had Greatest Effect in the Arctic
The polar bear has been listed on the U.S. endangered species list.

32. Biodiversity loss has causes and consequences

33. Benefits of Biodiversity
Provides ecosystems services for free 
Food
Fuel
Fiber
Shelter
Building materials
Purification for water and air
Stabilizes Earths climate
Controls pests and disease
Etc.

34. Transplants
Elephants to America

35. Activity
List the Remainder of “Benefits to Biodiversity” from Your Text
Weighing the Issues: Single Species Conservation, pg. 180.
Testing Comp. q’s, 1-3, Seeking Solutions, 1 & 2

36. Biodiversity benefits: maintain ecosystem function
Biodiversity increases the stability and resilience of communities and ecosystems.
Decreased biodiversity reduces a natural system’s ability to function and provide services to our society.
The loss of a species affects ecosystems differently.
Extinction of a keystone species may cause other species to decline or disappear.

37. Biodiversity Benefits: Enhanced Food
Genetic diversity in crops is enormously valuable.
Turkey’s wheat crops received $50 billion worth of disease resistance from wild wheat.
New potential food crops are waiting to be used.
Serendipity berry produces a sweetener 3,000 times sweeter than sugar.
Salt tolerant grasses can be irrigated with seawater.

38. Drugs & Medicines
Each year pharmaceutical products owing their origin to wild species generate up to $150 billion in sales.
The rosy periwinkle produces compounds that treat Hodgkin's disease and leukemia.

39. Economic benefits
Biodiversity provides a source of income through tourism.
Ecotourism: people visit natural areas, creating economic opportunity for residents living near those areas
Costa Rica: rainforests
Australia: Great Barrier Reef
Belize: reefs, caves, and rainforests
A powerful incentive to preserve natural areas and reduce impacts on the landscape and species
But too many visitors to natural areas can degrade the outdoor experience and disturb wildlife

40. People Value Nature
Biophilia: connections that humans subconsciously seek with life
Our affinity for parks and wildlife
Keeping of pets
High value of real estate with views of natural lands
Nature deficit disorder: alienation from the natural environment
May be behind the emotional and physical problems of the young

41. Do we have ethical obligations to other species?
Many feel that living organisms have an innate right to exist.
Biodiversity conservation is justified on ethical grounds.
“If tigers aren’t worth saving, then what are we all about? What is worth saving?”
Despite our ethical convictions, and biodiversity’s many benefits, the future of biodiversity remains far from secure.

42. Conservation Biology
APES
Complete Ch 8

43. Why did it Arise?
………. We have begun to turn in our role from local conqueror to global steward.
E.O. Wilson: Naturalist, 1994
Conservation Biology: scientific discipline devoted to understanding the factors, forces and processes that influence loss, protection, and restoration of biological diversity

44. Disciplines W/In the Field
Conservation Geneticists
How small can a pop become, how much genetic variation it can lose before problems such as inbreeding depression
Minimum viable population size

45. Island Biogeography Theory

46. Distance Effect
The farther from a continent, fewer species can locate and inhabit it. Thus, the more remote the island, the lower the immigration rate

47. Target Size
The larger the Island the more room for immigrants

48. Differential Extinction
The larger the island, the less likely organisms are to go extinct; larger areas allow for larger populations, who are less vulnerable to extinctions

49. Island Biogeography Thoery
explore_island_biogeogrphy_START

50. Why does this matter? The Island Biogeography Theory shows:
Larger islands show more equilibrium than smaller ones due to factors such a more habitats, resources, etc.
Area Effect
This data holds true for fragmented areas
Forests fragmented by logging
Diversity is lost quickly, starting with large animals 1st
Usually your top predators
Few numbers to begin with

52. What about Endangered Species?
Endangered Species Act (1973)
Govt and private industry cannot destroy endangered species or their habitat
Orange River Power Plant in Lee County
Forbids trade in products made from end sp.
2008: 1,046 in US Endangered, 307 Threatened

53. Issues Manatees in Florida Spotted Owl in Pacific NW
Florida Panther in Florida
Gopher Tortoise in Florida

54. What can we do? Captive Breeding and Reintroduction Cloning?
Pros
Cons
Cloning?
Umbrella Species: If this critter is in the area, the area becomes protected ;)
Flagship species:
Pandas
Panthers
Bald eagles

55. Despite opposition, the ESA has had successes
Peregrine falcons, brown pelicans, bald eagles, and others have recovered and are no longer listed as endangered.
Intensive management has stabilized other species.
The red-cockaded woodpecker
40% of declining populations are now stable.
These successes occur despite underfunding of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service.
Recently, political forces have attempted to weaken the ESA.
In 2006, 5,700 U.S. scientists wrote letters of protest to Congress.

56. The ESA is controversial
Most Americans support protecting endangered species.
Opponents feel that the ESA values endangered organisms more than the livelihood of people.
Private land use will be restricted if an endangered species is present.
“Shoot, shovel, and shut up”: landowners conceal the presence of endangered species on their land
But the ESA has stopped few development projects.
Habitat conservation plans and safe harbor agreements: landowners can harm species if they improve habitat for the species in other places 56

57. International Level
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species)
Protects trade in ES body parts
Convention on Biological Diversity
Conserve biodiversity
Use biodiversity in a sustainable manner
Ensure the fair distribution of biodiversity's benefits
To date, 188 nations have signed on. US did NOT
Conservation International
Hotspots are located and focused upon

58. Hotspot: area with 1500 endemic plant species, and must have already 70% of its habitat due to man. 34 total
These areas used to make up 15.7% of the planet; now it is only 2.3%! Unacceptable 
This area is home to 50% of the worlds plant sp, 42% of terrestrial vertebrate sp.

59. Think Globally, Act Locally ;)
Community Based Conservation; making conservation beneficial to local people
Ecotourism
Park rangers
Parks and recreation areas

60. Conclusion
Human induced habitat alteration, invasive species, pollution, overharvesting of biotic resources, and climate change are primary reasons for biodiversity loss.
Human society can not function without biodiversity’s benefits
We must care!!!

61. Activity Testing Comprehension Q’s: 6-10
Calculating Ecological Footprints, 1-4 and data table
Above 2 due tomorrow
Go to my web-page and follow the links for the Endangered Species Assignment
Due Tuesday, November 27th, 2012
Review Tomorrow
Exam Next Day

62. QUESTION: Review
Which level is NOT included in the concept of biodiversity?
Species
Genetics
Ecosystems
All of the above are included in this concept.
Answer: d

63. QUESTION: Review
What happens when a species experiences “inbreeding depression”?
The species becomes too large for the resource base
Genetically similar parents mate and produce inferior offspring
Genetically similar parents mate and produce superior offspring
The number and variety of species increases
An ecosystem’s biodiversity increases
Answer: b

64. QUESTION: Review Species richness increases toward the equator
According to the concept of “latitudinal gradient,” which of the following happens?
Species richness increases toward the equator
Species richness decreases toward the equator
Species richness decreases over time
Countries like Canada have many more species than expected
People in warmer climates protect species better than people in colder climates
Answer: a

65. QUESTION: Review Very small species are often overlooked.
Which of the following statements is FALSE?
Very small species are often overlooked.
Remote areas may have unidentified species.
We have identified almost all species on Earth.
There are more insect species than any other type of species.
Ecotones often have high biodiversity.
Answer: c

66. QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is the major cause of extinction?
Invasive species
Pollution
Habitat loss
Overharvesting
These are pretty much equal in causing extinction.
Answer: c

67. QUESTION: Review Biodiversity does all of the following EXCEPT:
Provide ecosystem services
Decrease food security
Maintain ecosystem function
Provide aesthetic benefits
Provide economic benefits
Answer: b

68. QUESTION: Review
According to the theory of island biogeography, which island would have the LOWEST species richness?
A large island, close to the mainland
A large island, far from the mainland
A small island, close to the mainland
A small island, far from the mainland
None of these; islands don’t really have species
Answer: d

69. QUESTION: Review A “biodiversity hotspot” is:
An area located near the equator
An area that supports few, but large, species
An area that contains naturally high numbers of people
An area that contains a large number of endemic species
An area where the wealthy can go on vacation
Answer: d

70. QUESTION: Review
Which statement about the U.S. Endangered Species Act is FALSE?
It forbids the government, but not private citizens, from harming endangered species.
It lists endangered and threatened species.
It is designed to prevent extinction.
It is designed to enable populations to increase.
It is designed to stabilize declining populations.
Answer: a

71. QUESTION: Weighing the Issues
If a pharmaceutical company produces a medicine from a plant found in Costa Rica that will earn millions of dollars, who should reap the financial benefits?
The company, because it had to pay millions of dollars to discover and produce the drug
Costa Rica, because it had the plant that produced the drug
Taxpayers, because they fund lots of research through their tax dollars
Native people in Costa Rica, because the company would not have found the drug without their help
The native people, the company, and Costa Rica, because all played a vital part in the drug’s discovery and development
Answer: any

72. QUESTION: Weighing the Issues
Have you ever personally experienced evidence of the biophilia hypothesis?
Yes, I frequently feel a connection to other living things and nature
Yes, sometimes, on a particularly lovely day
Maybe, but I’m not sure
No, because I don’t get to experience nature often enough
Definitely not, unless I was going to earn money from using nature
Answer: any

73. QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
Where would ecotourists go to view the maximum species richness on these islands?
a) Redonda
b) Montserrat
c) Puerto Rico
Hispaniola
Jamaica
Answer: d

74. QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
Which biome lost the most area by 1950? Which biome lost the most area in recent decades?
Temperate grassland, tropical dry forest
Desert, savanna
Chaparral, tundra
Temperate grassland, desert
Answer: a