1. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 1 Programming Language Concepts Formal Syntax Paradigms Data Types Polymorphism

2. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 2 General Issues Representation (of data, of computation) Form (Syntax) Meaning (Semantics) Paradigm (General way of thinking) Naming (names, name spaces, bindings, locality) Functionality (numeric, data manip, I/O, communication, synchronization, security) Correctness (types, exception handling, error checking, bug avoidance)

3. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 3 Syntax Syntax: The grammatical form of programs. vs Semantics: The meaning of the program Syntax (of textual languages) is typically specified by production rules for a context-free grammar using Backus-Naur Form (BNF) or Extended BNF (EBNF) In visual languages, syntax is described by a set of restrictions on how diagrams may be constructed. (e.g., connection constraints)

4. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 4 Syntactic Components Identifiers and reserved words Numeric constants Parentheses, braces and brackets Expressions Statements

5. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 5 BNF (Backus-Naur Form) (2.0 * PI) / n ::= + | - | ::= * | / | ::= number | name | ( )

6. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 6 Extended BNF Optional constructs written as [ x ] Zero or more of x written as { x } Choice (“or”) written using | Grouping with parentheses ( x | y ) as in { (x | y ) z } ::= { (+ | -) } ::= { (* | /) } ::= ’(’ ’)’ | name | number

7. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 7 Derivation E ::= E + T | E - T | T T ::= T * F | T / F | F F ::= number | name | ( E ) E E + T T + T T / F + T F / F + T F / F + F 25 / F + F 25 / 100 + F 25 / 100 + total

8. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 8 Representation of Data Constants, Variables Types, classes Compounds: arrays, structures. Non-numeric objects: strings, images, audio. Values vs references Machine dependencies: word size, addressing resolution. In C, characters and booleans are actually integers.

9. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 9 Representation of Process Arithmetic and logical expressions Conditional expressions Loops Recursive and nonrecursive functions Multiple threads of control, forking, joining, synchronizing Single-threaded Parallel processing (in Single- instruction stream/multiple data stream processors) Throwing and catching of exceptions Declaration of constraints and rules

10. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 10 Paradigm General style of thinking that underlies a programming language Webster’s New World Dictionary: “a pattern, example, or model”. ImperativeRule-based FunctionalLogic Object-orientedVisual data-flow

11. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 11 The Imperative Paradigm An imperative program is a sequence of commands Read a value from a file. Evaluate an arithmetic expression. Assign a value to a variable. Test a condition and branch if it is true. Iterate a loop body until a condition is false. Print a value onto the screen.

12. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 12 The Functional Paradigm An functional program is a collection of function definitions and function applications. Define SQR(x): { Apply the * function to x and x} Apply SQR to 7;

13. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 13 The Object-Oriented Paradigm An object-oriented program is a collection of object class definitions, in which both data members and methods are specified. Class Student extends Person { int student_number; int get_student_number() { return student_number; } int set_student_number (int num) { student_number = num; }

14. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 14 The Rule-Based Paradigm A rule-based program is a collection of if-then rules. if name = "" then input name; if name starts with "A" then print "Early in the alphabet";

15. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 15 The Logic-Programming Paradigm A logic program is a collection of logical propositions and questions. If x is a bird or an airplane, then x has wings. Tweety is a bird. Does Tweety have wings?

16. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 16 The Visual Data-Flow Paradigm A visual data-flow program is a diagram in which boxes represent operations and arrows indicate the flow of data from outputs of operations to inputs of other operations. input x * * * 5 3 + + 8 3x 2 + 5x + 8

17. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 17 Types Category or class for a value (or object) that permits its bits to be interpreted. Central Processing Unit instruction sets recognize certain types, such as integers and floats of different sizes. A programming language is not limited to the types that are directly supported by the CPU.

18. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 18 Strong vs Weak Typing Strong typing: Every variable must be declared with a type. A variable may receive only values of its type. Type-related bugs can be reduced. Type identification tags are not needed a run time. Weak typing: Variables need not be declared with particular types. The type of value held by a variable can change dynamically. Values must be tagged during execution with their types.

19. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 19 Coercion and Contagion Coercion: Any automatic type conversion. A value of type A is being assigned to a variable of type B. The value is coerced into one of type B. double x = 3 * 5; Contagion: Values of lower precision “catch” the precision of their higher precision co-arguments. int y = 10 * (3.1415 / 10); /* result is 3, not 0. */ In Common Lisp, when a rational meets a float, the rule of floating- point contagion rules.

20. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 20 Type Inference With weak typing, type inference is needed. The resulting type can be determined from the types of the arguments, and the nature of the operations. Contagion provides one method for type inference: With strong typing, means for determining type equivalence are needed. int x[10]; int y[10]; Here x and y have structurally equivalent types. C and C++ recognize structurally equivalent types as equivalent. In Modula, most structurally equivalent types are not automatically considered equivalent, but they can be declared equivalent.

21. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 21 Polymorphism The ability for a function or a variable to receive values of different types. (setq x 5) (setq x ‘(a b c)) In Perl, is this polymorphism? $x = 5; $x = " This is a string. " ;

22. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 22 Polymorphism in Java Vector v = new Vector( ); v.addElement(5); v.addElement("A string"); Generality of type can be achieved by declaring formal parameters to be of class Object. Vector returnTwo(Object obj) { Vector pair = new Vector( ); pair.addElement(obj); pair.addElement(obj.clone()); return pair; }

23. CSE 341, S. Tanimoto Concepts 1- 23 Benefits of Polymorphism One polymorphic function does the work of several more specific functions. (push element) (push-integer 5) (push-string "string") A polymorphic variable can hold a piece of data in different forms without requiring additional variables. (setq president ’(abe lincoln)) (setq president (format nil "~A" president ))