1. Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach
Chapter 10
Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach

2. Core Case Study: Reintroducing Wolves to Yellowstone
Keystone Species
Keeps prey away from open areas near stream banks (riparian zones)
Vegetation reestablishes.
Species diversity expands.
Figure 10-1

3. Core Case Study: Reintroducing Wolves to Yellowstone
Endangered Species
two million wolves were destroyed.
Prey populations soared
Willow and Aspen stands decimated leading to erosion
Re-introduced in the early 1990’s
Stability and biodiversity re-establised
Figure 10-1

4. Video: Wolf Pack

5. HUMAN IMPACTS ON TERRESTRIAL BIODIVERSITY
Gray wolves are just one of many species humans have impacted
We have depleted and degraded some of the earth’s biodiversity and these threats are expected to increase.
Figure 10-2

6. HUMAN IMPACTS ON TERRESTRIAL BIODIVERSITY
Gray wolves are just one of many species humans have impacted
We have depleted and degraded some of the earth’s biodiversity and these threats are expected to increase.

7. HUMAN IMPACTS ON TERRESTRIAL BIODIVERSITY
83% of global land impacted by human activities.
Filling wetlands
Deforestation for crops and urban areas

8. Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?
INSTRUMENTAL (Use) Value:
Usefulness in terms of economic and ecological services.
Food, jobs, recreation, tourism, medicine, water quality, etc
Figure 10-3

9. Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?
INTRINSIC (Nonuse) Value:
Ethical
Based on existence, aesthetics, bequest for future generations.
Figure 10-3

10. MANAGING AND SUSTAINING FORESTS
Forests provide a number of ecological and economic services that researchers have attempted to estimate their total monetary value.
Figure 10-4

11. Figure 10.4
Natural capital: major ecological and economic services provided by forests. QUESTION: Which two ecological services and which two economic services do you think are the most important?

12. Types of Forests
Old-growth forest: uncut or regenerated forest that has not been seriously disturbed for several hundred years.
22% of world’s forest.
Hosts many species with specialized niches.
Figure 10-5

13. Types of Forests
Second-growth forest: a stand of trees resulting from natural secondary succession.
Tree plantation (tree farm): planted stands of a particular tree species (monoculture), clear-cut, replanted.
Figure 10-6

14. Global Outlook: Extent of Deforestation
Human activities have reduced the earth’s forest cover by as much as half.
Short-term economic benefit for the few
Long-term degradation for the many
Losses are concentrated in developing countries.
Figure 10-7

15. Global Outlook: Extent of Deforestation
Primary Causes of tropical deforestation
Population growth & poverty
Subsidies
Poor are given title to cleared land
International lending agencies encourage development
Figure 10-7

16. Animation: Hubbard Brook Experiment
Animations/hubbard_brook.html

17. Case Study: Deforestation and the Fuelwood Crisis
Almost half the people in the developing world face a shortage of fuelwood and charcoal.
In Haiti, 98% of country is deforested.
MIT scientist has found a way to make charcoal from spent sugarcane.
Can change regional climate & forests will NOT regenerate
Emits CO2 – takes ~200yrs to re-accumulate in a 2nd growth forest

18. Case Study: Deforestation and the Fuelwood Crisis

19. Case Study: Deforestation and the Fuelwood Crisis
Reducing the crisis:
Community forests work best when owned and managed by locals
Can be used as protein-source (nuts)
Provide for better efficiency stoves or solar ovens
Also reduces health issues and death related to air quality
Government re-forestation programs based on villages cooperatives

20. Harvesting Trees FIRST STEP: Logging roads
fragmentation, erosion, sedimentation and loss of biodiversity.
Opens invasion by nonnatives, pests, off-road vehicles, farmers, miners, hunters, ranchers, etc
Automatically disqualify land for wilderness protection
Figure 10-8

21. Harvesting Trees
Trees can be harvested individually from diverse forests (selective cutting), an entire forest can be cut down (clear cutting), or portions of the forest is harvested (e.g. strip cutting).
Figure 10-9

22. (a) Selective cutting Uneven aged forests
Intermediate-aged or mature trees cut singly or in small groups
Reduces crowding, diseases, encourages growth & maintains diversity & multiple use
CREAMING – all largest trees removed
Degrades environment
Figure 10.9
Major tree harvesting methods.
Fig. 10-9a, p. 198

23. (b) Clear-cutting Fig. 10-9b, p. 198 Figure 10.9
Major tree harvesting methods.
Fig. 10-9b, p. 198

24. (b) Clear cutting
Effects of clear-cutting in the state of Washington, U.S.
Figures and 10-11

25. (c) Strip cutting Uncut Cut 1 year ago Dirt road Cut 3–10 years ago
Figure 10.9
Major tree harvesting methods.
Stream
Fig. 10-9c, p. 198

26. Other Methods Shelterwood cutting Seed-tree cutting Removes some
Used to regenerate moderately shade-tolerant species like Oak
Seed-tree cutting
Removes most; leaves a few to seed next generation
Used primarily used for conifers
Figure 10-12

27. Solutions Use forests sustainably by emphasizing:
Economic value of ecological services.
Harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished.
Protecting old-growth and vulnerable areas.
Buy only certified lumber
Figure 10-12

28. CASE STUDY: FOREST RESOURCES AND MANAGEMENT IN THE U.S.
U.S. forests cover more area than in 1920.
Since the 1960’s, an increasing area of old growth and diverse second-growth forests have been clear-cut.
Often replaced with tree farms.
Decreases biodiversity.
Disrupts ecosystem processes.

29. Forestry Management: Types and Effects of Forest Fires
Depending on their intensity, fires can benefit or harm forests.
Burn away flammable ground material.
Release valuable mineral nutrients.
Destroy wildlife, increase erosion (especially in suppressed areas)
Figure 10-13

30. Types of Forest Fires

31. Solutions: Controversy Over Fire Management
To reduce fire damage:
Set controlled surface fires.
Allow fires to burn on public lands if they don’t threaten life and property.
Clear small areas around property subject to fire.

32. Solutions: Controversy Over Fire Management
In 2003, U.S. Congress passed the Healthy Forest Restoration Act:
Allows timber companies to cut medium and large trees in 71% of the national forests.
In return, must clear away smaller, more fire-prone trees and underbrush.
Some forest scientists believe this could increase severe fires by removing fire resistant trees and leaving highly flammable slash. Fire suppression.
Some trees need fire to germinate
Seems like a cover for a ‘give-away’ to business interests

33. Solutions: Controversy Over Fire Management
ECOLOGICAL STRATEGIES
Prescribed burns
Use grazers (like goats) to eat away flammable underbrush
Allow public lands fires to burn
Thin forest edges (200 feet) in fire-prone areas & eliminate flammable building materials

34. Controversy over Logging in U.S. National Forests
Ongoing debate over whether U.S. national forests should be primarily for:
Timber.
Ecological services.
Recreation.
Mix of these uses.
Current timber-cutting is not profitable and is highly subsidized
Figure 10-14

35. Solutions: Reducing Demand for Harvest Trees
60% of wood consumed in US is wasted
Inefficient construction
Excess packaging
Junk mail
Inadequate recycling
Lack of re-use
Figure 10-15

36. Solutions: Reducing Demand for Harvest Trees
Tree harvesting can be reduced by wasting less wood and making paper and charcoal fuel from fibers that do not come from trees.
China uses rice straw
Kenaf is a promising plant for paper production.
Figure 10-15

37. American Forests in a Globalized Economy
INTENSIVE TREE PLANTATIONS (temperate and tropical)
Decreases need for timber production in U.S.
Preserves biodiversity in the U.S. by decreasing pressure to clear-cut.
May lead to private land owners to sell less profitable land to developers.
Can compromise biodiversity and watershed protection.
Results in less money for forest management and restoration
Forest management policy will play a key role.

38. CASE STUDY: TROPICAL DEFORESTATION
Large areas of ecologically and economically important tropical forests are being cleared and degraded at a fast rate.
Figure 10-16

39. CASE STUDY: TROPICAL DEFORESTATION
At least half of the world’s terrestrial plant and animal species live in tropical rain forests.
Large areas of tropical forest are burned to make way for cattle ranches and crops.
Figure 10-17

40. Why Should We Care about the Loss of Tropical Forests?
About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests.
Figure 10-18

41. Rauvolfia Rauvolfia sepentina, Southeast Asia Tranquilizer, high
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Rauvolfia
Rauvolfia sepentina,
Southeast Asia
Tranquilizer, high
blood pressure
medication
Fig a, p. 205

42. Foxglove Digitalis purpurea, Europe Digitalis for heart failure
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Foxglove
Digitalis purpurea,
Europe
Digitalis for heart failure
Fig b, p. 205

43. Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia, Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Pacific yew
Taxus brevifolia,
Pacific Northwest
Ovarian cancer
Fig c, p. 205

44. Cinchona Cinchona ledogeriana, South America
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Cinchona
Cinchona ledogeriana,
South America
Quinine for malaria treatment
Fig d, p. 205

45. Rosy periwinkle Cathranthus roseus, Madagascar Hodgkin's disease,
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Rosy periwinkle
Cathranthus roseus,
Madagascar
Hodgkin's disease,
lymphocytic leukemia
Fig e, p. 205

46. Neem tree Azadirachta indica, India Treatment of many
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Neem tree
Azadirachta indica,
India
Treatment of many
diseases, insecticide,
spermicide
Fig f, p. 205

47. Causes of Tropical Deforestation and Degradation
Tropical deforestation results from a number of interconnected primary and secondary causes.
Figure 10-19

48. Sustaining Tropical Forests
Solutions
Sustaining Tropical Forests
Prevention
Restoration
Protect most diverse and endangered areas
Educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry
Phase out subsidies that encourage unsustainable forest use
Add subsidies that encourage sustainable forest use
Protect forests with debt-for-nature swaps and conservation easements (or concessions)
Certify sustainably grown timber
Reduce illegal cutting
Reduce poverty
Slow population growth
Reforestation
Rehabilitation of degraded areas
Concentrate farming and ranching on already-cleared areas
Figure 10.20
Solutions: ways to protect tropical forests and use them more sustainably. QUESTION: Which three of these solutions do you think are the most important?
Fig , p. 207

49. Kenya’s Green Belt Movement: Individuals Matter
Wangari Maathai founded the Green Belt Movement.
The main goal is to organize poor women to plant (for fuelwood) and protect millions of trees.
In 2004, awarded Nobel peace prize.
Figure 10-10A

50. MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS
ECOLOGICAL SERVICES:
Soil formation, erosion control, nutrient cycling, carbon storage, gene pools, biodiversity, habitats
After forests – most widely used and altered by humans

51. MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS
Almost half of the world’s livestock graze on natural grasslands (rangelands) and managed grasslands (pastures).
Renewable if tip is eaten (not base)
Moderate grazing is beneficial – stimulates growth, encourages diversity
We can sustain rangeland productivity by controlling the number and distribution of livestock and by restoring degraded rangeland.

52. MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS
Overgrazing (left) occurs when too many animals graze for too long and exceed carrying capacity of a grassland area.
Biggest cause of desertification in Australia
Undergrazing can also become a problem (NPP, invasives, woody plants)
Figure 10-21

53. MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS
Rotational grazing
Supplemental feed
Protection of riparian zones
Example of restored riparian area along the San Pedro River in Arizona after 10 years of banning grazing and off-road vehicles.
Figure 10-22

54. MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS
Management of invasives: controlled burns, herbicides, mechanical removal, controlled trampling, reseeding & fertilization (expensive)
Figure 10-22

55. Case Study: Grazing and Urban Development in the American West
Ranchers, ecologists, and environmentalists are joining together to preserve the grasslands on cattle ranches.
Paying ranchers conservation easements (barring future owners from development).
Pressuring government to zone the land to prevent development of ecologically sensitive areas.

56. NATIONAL PARKS
Countries have established more than 1,100 national parks, but most are threatened by human activities.
Local people invade park for wood, cropland, and other natural resources.
Loggers, miners, and wildlife poachers also deplete natural resources.
Many are too small to sustain large-animal species.
Many suffer from invasive species.

57. Case Study: Stresses on U.S. National Parks
Overused due to popularity.
Inholdings (private ownership) within parks threaten natural resources.
Air pollution.
Figure 10-23

58. Suggestions for sustaining and expanding the national park system in the U.S.
Figure 10-24

59. NATURE RESERVES
Wilderness is land legally set aside in a large enough area to prevent or minimize harm from human activities.
Only a small percentage of the land area of the United States has been protected as wilderness.
The United States government has direct ownership of almost 650 million acres of land (2.63 million square kilometers) - nearly 30% of its total territory. These federal lands are used as military bases or testing grounds, nature parks and reserves and Indian reservations, or are leased to the private sector for commercial exploitation (e.g. forestry, mining, agriculture). They are managed by different administrations, such as the Bureau of Land Management, the US Forest Service, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Park Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the US Department of Defense, the US Army Corps of Engineers, the US Bureau of Reclamation or the Tennessee Valley Authority.

60. NATURE RESERVES
Ecologists call for protecting more land to help sustain biodiversity.
Powerful economic and political interests oppose.
12% of earth’s land area is protected.
5% is strictly protected from harmful human activities
Conservation biologists call for full protection of at least 20% of earth’s land area representing multiple examples of all biomes.

61. NATURE RESERVES
Large and medium-sized reserves with buffer zones help protect biodiversity and can be connected by corridors.
Allow safe migration and movement
Also allow invasives to spread
Costa Rica has consolidated its parks and reserves into 8 megareserves designed to sustain 80% if its biodiversity.
Figure 10-10B

62. Cordillera Volcanica Central
Guanacaste
Nigaragua
Caribbean Sea
Llanuras de
Tortuguero
Costa
Rica
La Amistad
Arenal
Bajo
Tempisque
Panama
Cordillera Volcanica Central
Figure 10.B
Solutions: Costa Rica has consolidated its parks and reserves into eight megareserves designed to sustain about 80% of the country’s rich biodiversity.
Pacifico Central
Peninsula Osa
Pacific Ocean
Fig. 10-B, p. 213

63. NATURE RESERVES
A model biosphere reserve that contains a protected inner core surrounded by two buffer zones that people can use for multiple use.
Figure 10-25

64. NATURE RESERVES Prevention & slowing loss of biodiversity
concentrating efforts on protecting global hot spots where significant biodiversity is under immediate threat.
sustain local biodiversity while providing local economic income.

65. NATURE RESERVES
Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping can be used to understand and manage ecosystems.
Identify areas to establish and connect nature reserves in large ecoregions to prevent fragmentation.
Developers can use GIS to design housing developments with the least environmental impact.

66. 34 hotspots identified by ecologists as important and endangered centers of biodiversity.
Figure 10-26

67. Animation: Biodiversity Hot Spots
Animations/hotspots.html

68. ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
Restoration: trying to return to a condition as similar as possible to original state.
Rehabilitation: attempting to turn a degraded ecosystem back to being functional.
Replacement: replacing a degraded ecosystem with another type of ecosystem.
Creating artificial ecosystems: such as artificial wetlands for flood reduction and sewage treatment.

69. ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
Rewilding:
Identify remaining wild areas
Learn about how natural system sustains itself
Consider human disruptions
Coordinate private, public, government, NGOs, etc to establish and preserve existing connections

70. ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
Five basic science-based principles for ecological restoration:
Identify cause.
Stop abuse by eliminating or sharply reducing factors.
Reintroduce species if necessary.
Protect area form further degradation.
Use adaptive management to monitor efforts, assess successes, and modify strategies.

71. Will Restoration Encourage Further Destruction?
There is some concern that ecological restoration could promote further environmental destruction and degradation.
Suggesting that any ecological harm can be undone.
Preventing ecosystem damage is far cheaper than ecological restoration.

72. WHAT CAN WE DO? Eight priorities for protecting biodiversity:
Take immediate action to preserve world’s biological hot spots.
Keep intact remaining old growth.
Complete mapping of world’s biodiversity for inventory and decision making.
Determine world’s marine hot spots.
Concentrate on protecting and restoring lake and river systems (most threatened ecosystems).
Ensure that the full range of the earths ecosystems are included in global conservation strategy.
Make conservation profitable.
Initiate ecological restoration products to heal some of the damage done and increase share of earth’s land and water allotted to the rest of nature.

73. Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity
What Can You Do?
Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity
• Adopt a forest.
• Plant trees and take care of them.
• Recycle paper and buy recycled paper products.
• Buy sustainable wood and wood products.
• Choose wood substitutes such as bamboo furniture and recycled plastic outdoor furniture, decking, and fencing.
• Restore a nearby degraded forest or grassland.
• Landscape your yard with a diversity of plants natural to the area.
• Live in town because suburban sprawl reduces biodiversity.
Figure 10.27
Individuals matter: ways to help sustain terrestrial biodiversity.
Fig , p. 219