1. Ch. 17 - Solid Waste Management and Disposal

2. Kinds of Solid Waste
Solid waste is generally made of objects or particles that accumulate on the site where they are produced. They are typically categorized by the sector of the economy responsible for producing them.
Mining wastes are generated in three ways
Industrial solid waste consists of solid waste other than mining.
Agricultural waste
Municipal solid waste consists of all the materials people in a region no longer want.

3. Municipal Solid Waste
In modern society, many products are discarded when they are broken or worn out, while others only have a temporary use.
Those that have only temporary uses make up the majority of solid waste.
Unites States produces about 210 million metric tons of municipal solid waste annually.
This equates to 2 kg (4.4 lbs) of trash per person per day.
Per capita waste has increased 70% since 1960.

4. Municipal Solid Waste
Municipal solid waste generation rates

5. Municipal Solid Waste
Nations with a higher standard of living tend to produce more municipal solid waste per person than less-developed countries.
Large metropolitan areas have the greatest difficulty dealing with solid waste.
Waste generation and lifestyle

6. Methods of Waste Disposal
In the past, the favored means of waste disposal was to dump solid wastes outside of city or village limits.
To minimize the volume of waste, the dump was often burned.
This practice is still employed in remote or sparsely populated areas in the world.
Five techniques are now used in waste disposal:
Landfills
Incineration
Source reduction
Composting
Recycling

7. Methods of Waste Disposal
A well-designed modern landfill

8. Methods of Waste Disposal
Recycling is one of the best environmental success stories of the late 20th century.
In the United States, recycling (including composting) diverted about 30% of solid waste stream from landfills and incinerators in 2001.
Container laws provide an economic incentive to recycle.
Case Study 17.2 – Beverage Container Deposit-Refund Programs
Mandatory recycling laws provide a statutory incentive to recycle.
Curbside recycling provides a convenient way for people to recycle.
There are many technical and economic problems associated with recycling.
Case Study 17.1 – Resins used in consumer packaging

9. What You Can Do to Reduce Waste and Save Money:
Buy things that last, keep them as long as possible, and have them repaired, if possible.
Buy things that are reusable or recyclable, and be sure to reuse or recycle them.
Buy beverages in refillable glass containers instead of cans or throwaway bottles.
Use plastic or metal lunch boxes and metal or plastic garbage containers without throwaway plastic liners.
Use rechargeable batteries.
Skip the bag when you buy anything you can carry with your hands.
Buy recycled goods, and recycle them.
Recycle all newspaper, glass, and aluminum, and any other items accepted for recycling in your community.
Reduce the amount of junk mail you get.
Push for mandatory trash separation and recycling programs in your community and schools.
Choose items that have the least packaging or no packaging at all.
Compost your yard and food wastes, and pressure local officials to set up a community composting program.

10. Ch. 18 - Environmental Regulations: Hazardous Substances and Wastes
Case Study 18.3 – Computers – A Hazardous Waste

11. Hazardous and Toxic Materials in Our Environment
The life cycle of toxic substances

13. Hazardous and Toxic Substances—Some Definitions
Hazardous substances or hazardous materials are those that can cause harm to humans or the environment.
The EPA defines hazardous materials as having one or more of the following characteristics:
Ignitability (Fire hazard)
Corrosiveness (Corrodes material)
Reactivity (Explosiveness)
Toxicity (May release toxins)
Some hazardous materials, such as gasoline, fall into several categories.
Terms are incorrectly used interchangeably.
Toxic commonly refers to a narrow group of substances that cause human injury or death.
Hazardous is a broader term; it refers to all dangerous materials that create a human health or environmental problem.

14. Defining Hazardous Waste
Hazardous wastes are by-products of industrial, business, or household activities for which there is no immediate use.
They must be disposed of in an appropriate manner.
There are stringent regulations pertaining to production, storage, and disposal.
U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA):
This act created the “cradle-to-grave” concept.
Under RCRA, substances are considered toxic or hazardous if they:
Cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, illness; or pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed.

15. Determining Regulations
The U.S. has attempted to deal with hazardous substances and wastes by using “command and control” methods of governmental regulations, beginning with the development of the EPA and OSHA in 1970.
Many states, as well as some countries, have tried to mirror these regulations by codifying their own statues specific to their needs.
State regulations can be equal or more stringent than federal regulations.

16. Determining Regulations
Acute vs. Chronic Toxicity
Effects of massive doses at once (acute toxicity) and small doses over time (chronic toxicity) differ.
Chronic toxicity is much harder to detect as effects may not surface for long periods of time.
Synergism
Assessing the effects of chemical mixtures is also problematic.
Most toxicity studies focus on a single compound.
Synergism is the potential of relatively harmless individual compounds to become highly toxic and do great damage when combined.

17. Hazardous-Waste Dumps— A Legacy of Abuse
Prior to RCRA in 1976, hazardous waste was essentially unregulated.
In the U.S., the federal government has become the principal participant in the cleanup of hazardous-waste sites.
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) was enacted in 1980.
This program deals with financing the cleanup of large, uncontrolled hazardous-waste sites and has become known as Superfund.
A National Priorities List was drawn up for Superfund action. Under CERCLA, over 44,000 sites were evaluated, and about 11,000 were considered serious enough to warrant further investigation.

18. Hazardous-Waste Dumps— A Legacy of Abuse
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI)
In 1987, any industrial plant that released at least 23,000 kg of toxic pollutants into the environment was required to file a report.
These were primarily manufacturing industries.
The information collected allowed EPA to target specific industries for enforcement action.
About 2.0 billion kg of toxic chemicals were reported released into the environment by industry in 2003.

19. Hazardous-Waste Management Choices
Pollution-prevention hierarchy

20. International Trade in Hazardous Wastes
There is particular concern about rich, industrialized countries exporting wastes to poorer, developing countries lacking administrative and technological resources to safely dispose of the waste.
Objectives of the Basel Convention (1989) are to minimize generation of hazardous wastes and control and reduce transboundary movements to protect human health and the environment.