1. RMK Chapter 1: Research Foundations
Introduction to Research
Systems of Logic
The Language of Variables
Relationships Between Variables
Hypotheses
Introduction to Validity
Ethics in Research

3. Research: Introduction
Research is a human activity based on intellectual investigation and is aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising human knowledge on different aspects of the world.

4. The Nature of Research Empirical – Based on observation & experiment
Systematic – e.g., Scientific Method
Identify the problem
Review information (e.g., literature review)
Collect data
Analyze data
Draw Conclusions
Valid
Based on fact or evidence, capable of being justified.
Two forms – Internal and External
Reliable
Consistency and ability to be replicated.
Variety of forms
Basic and Applied
Quantitative and Qualitative

5. The Structure of Research
The "hourglass" notion of research
Begin with broad questions
narrow down, focus in.
Operationalize.
OBSERVE
Analyze data.
Reach conclusions.
Generalize back to questions.

6. Research Questions - Goals
What kinds of questions does science address?
Descriptive – Describes a situation
What is the opinion of a group of people?
Relational – Relationship between variables
How is their opinion related to other characteristics?
Causal – Seeks to show a cause and effect
What factors affect their opinions?

7. The Structure of Research
Major Components in the Process
The problem
As experienced / As Conceptualized
The research question
Theory / Hypothesis
The program / treatment (cause)
Program construct (stated theoretically)
Program (operationalized construct)
The units
Population and sample
The outcomes (effects)
Outcome constructs
Operationalized measures
The design
Who gets the program

9. Systems of Logic Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

10. Deductive Thinking
Theory
Hypothesis
Observation
Confirmation

11. Inductive Thinking
Theory
Tentative
hypothesis
Pattern
Observation

12. Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Deductive – Quantitative research
“Top Down”
Narrower in scope than Inductive
Concerned with testing theory
Inductive – Qualitative research
“Bottom Up”
More open-ended and exploratory
Leads to theory creation

13. Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
Research often involves both
Deductive Reasoning
Theory - Hypothesis – Observation – Conclusion
Inductive Reasoning
Observation (Conclusion from Deductive) – Pattern – Tentative Hypothesis - Theory
Research – Circular relationship

15. The Language of ‘Variables’
Any observation that can take different values
e.g., Gender or Agreement
Attribute
A specific value on a variable
Should be “exhaustive” – include all possible answers
e.g., for variable “Gender,” = Female and Male
e.g., for variable “Agreement”
1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = neutral 4 = agree 5 = strongly agree

16. Types of Variables Causal Studies Descriptive & Relational Studies
Independent Variable (IV)
Leads to or causes something else – manipulated variable (treatment/program)
Dependent Variables (DV)
Is affected by other variable(s)
Descriptive & Relational Studies
IV and DV terms are sometimes used
IV not technically manipulated but is pre-existing (e.g., M/F)
IV & DV terms do not always apply.
Instead - Variables of interest
In the case of showing how variables are related

17. Types of Variables
Independent
Dependent
Academic achievement

18. Types of Variables Independent Dependent Family structure
Academic achievement

19. Types of Variables Independent Dependent Family structure
Economic status
Academic achievement

20. Types of Variables Independent Dependent Family structure
Economic status
Academic achievement
Schooling

21. Types of Variables Independent Dependent Family structure
Economic status
Academic achievement
Schooling
Special tutoring

22. Types of Variables Independent Dependent Family structure Not
manipulable
Economic status
Academic achievement
Schooling
Special tutoring

23. Types of Variables Independent Dependent Not manipulable Manipulable
Family structure
Not
manipulable
Economic status
Academic achievement
Schooling
Manipulable
Special tutoring

24. IV & DV Examples
A study of teacher-student classroom interaction in different levels of schooling.
IV: Level of schooling (elementary, middle, high)
DV: Interaction measurement
A study of the effect of the location of a school upon attitudes toward school of ninth-grade students.
IV: School location (urban, suburban, rural)
DV: Attitude measurement
A study of the effects of type of instructional material on solving complex problems.
IV: Type of material (figural, verbal)
DV: Time required to solve problem

25. Constructs Abstract Idea or Theory Operationalize Cause Construct
Translate construct into manifestation (operations or procedures)
Cause Construct
Operationalized = “Program”
Effect Construct
Operationalized = Observation Measurements
Example =
Self-esteem

26. Variable Construct – Operational Definition
Theory or idea
Self-esteem
Operational definition
I feel good about myself...
Reality
SD D N A SA

27. Constructs Self-esteem Operational definition Operational definition

28. Constructs Indicators Self-esteem Operational definition Operational

29. Constructs Each indicator is a fallible reflection of the construct.
Self-esteem
Operational
definition
Operational
definition
Operational
definition

30. Construct Dimensions Operationalization Example “Socioeconomic Status”
“Socioeconomic Status” and “Self-esteem
Operationalization Example
“Socioeconomic Status”
Dimensions
Income
Education

31. Construct Dimensions
Socioeconomic Status
Dimension 1: Income

32. Construct Dimensions Socioeconomic Status Dimension 1: Income
Dimension 2: Education

34. Relationships Between Variables
Positive
Negative
None
Curvilinear

35. Positive Relationship+
Dependent variable - - +
Independent variable

36. Negative Relationship+
Dependent variable - - +
Independent variable

37. No Relationship +
Dependent variable - - +
Independent variable

38. Curvilinear Relationship+
Dependent variable - - +
Independent variable

40. Hypotheses Introduction
Including all specific information in the “statement of the problem” can be unmanageable.
Hypothesis may be developed to add specificity & direction.
Exploratory studies may not have hypotheses.
Causal studies involve hypotheses.
In quantitative research, tested using statistical analysis.
Definition
A conjuncture or guess at the solution to a problem or the status of the situation.
A specific statement of prediction (detailed description).
States a relationship or effect between variables.
“Directional” (one-tailed), or “Nondirectional” (two- tailed).

41. Research Hypotheses Examples
As punitive, disciplinary methods increase in elementary school, student achievement will decrease.
Laboratory instruction enhances the student’s understanding of scientific processes over an instructional approach limited to lecture, discussion, and theoretical problem solution.
The mean reading score of the population of fourth graders taught by Method A equals the score achieved by Method B.
For online instruction, the use of video instruction improves content comprehension more then static text slide shows.

42. Causal Hypotheses
Statement of relationship between an independent and dependent variable
Describes a cause and effect
Represented / stated in two forms
The null hypothesis (Ho)
The alternative hypothesis (Ha)
The two forms are
Mutually exclusive
Exhaustive
Types
May be “Directional” (one-tailed), or
“Nondirectional” (two-tailed)

43. Causal Hypothesis (One-Tail)
Employee training program will reduce employee absenteeism.
Causal hypothesis
Can be restated & thought of in two forms – “Null” & “Alternative”
There will be no change or there will be more absenteeism as a result of training.
There will be less absenteeism as a result of training.
Null:
Alternative:

44. Causal Hypothesis (One-Tail)
Employee training program will reduce employee absenteeism. There will be no change or there will be more absenteeism as a result of training. There will be less absenteeism as a result of training.
Causal hypothesis
Null:
Alternative:
No change
A “one-tail” hypothesis
Less
More - +
Absenteeism

45. Causal Hypothesis (Two-Tail)
Our new drug treatment will cause a difference in depression. There will be no change in depression as a result of treatment . There will be a change in depression as a result of treatment.
Causal hypothesis
Null:
Alternative:
No change
A “two-tail” hypothesis
Less
More - +
Depression

46. Introduction to Validity
Validity refers to the best available approximation to the truth or falsity of a given inference, proposition, or conclusion.
Validity involves a set of standards by which research can be judged.
Multi-faceted
Validity of What?
Many different aspects of validity.

47. Validity Graphic: The Causal Context
Theory
What you think
Cause
construct
Effect
construct
Cause-effect Construct
Operationalize
Operationalize
Program
Observations
Program-outcome Relationship
What you do
What you see
What you test
Observation
In this study

48. Validity: General Forms
Let’s consider the previous graphic and look at:
Conclusion Validity
Internal Validity
Construct Validity
External Validity
We need to ask ourselves, does the study have these forms of validity?
Validity questions.
See next slides for relationship to Validity Graphic.

49. Conclusion Validity Is there a relationship between...
What you did and what you saw?
Program and Observations?
Program
Observations
Program-outcome Relationship
What you do
What you see
Observation
In this study

50. Internal Validity Is the relationship causal between...
What you did and what you saw?
Program and observations?
Alternative
cause
Alternative
cause
Program
Observations
Program-outcome Relationship
What you do
What you see
Alternative
cause
Observation
Alternative
cause
In this study

51. Construct Validity Can we generalize to the constructs? Theory Cause
What you think
Cause
construct
Effect
construct
Cause-effect Construct
Can we generalize to the constructs?
Program
Observations
Program-outcome Relationship
What you do
What you see
Observation

52. Can we generalize to other persons, places, times?
External Validity
Theory
What you think
Cause
construct
Effect
construct
Cause-effect Construct
Can we generalize to other persons, places, times?
Observation
Program
Observations
What You Do
What You See
program-outcome relationship
Observation
Program
Observations
What You Do
What You See
program-outcome relationship
Observation
Program
Observations
What You Do
What you see
program-outcome relationship
Observation
Program
Observations
What You Do
What You See
program-outcome relationship

53. The Validity Questions are cumulative...
Can we generalize to other persons, places, times?
External
Can we generalize to the constructs?
Construct
Internal
Is the relationship causal?
Is there a relationship between the variables of interest?
Conclusion

54. Threats to Validity You Want to Make an Inference...
There is a relationship between the variables of interest.
The relationship is causal.
You can generalize to the constructs.
You can generalize to other persons, places, and times.

55. Threats to Validity How could you be wrong in the inference?
Conclusion Validity
There is a relationship, but you don’t see it.
There is no relationship, but you do see one.

56. Threats to Validity How could you be wrong in the inference?
Internal Validity
There is a causal relationship, but you don’t see it.
There is no causal relationship, but you do see one.

57. Threats to Validity How could you be wrong in the inference?
Construct Validity
You can generalize to constructs, but you conclude you can’t.
You can’t generalize to constructs, but you conclude you can.

58. Threats to Validity How could you be wrong in the inference?
External Validity
You can generalize to other contexts, but you conclude you can’t
You can’t generalize to contexts, but you conclude you can

59. Threats to Validity How you can be wrong in making your inference
Specific factors that can bias or distort your conclusions
A list of common threats to the quality of your study
A “checklist” you can use in planning your study

61. Ethics in Research

62. Ethics: Historical Context
German experimentation (Experiments on humans)
Willowbrook Hepatitis study
Tuskegee Syphilis study (1932-’72)
Withheld effective treatment from African Americans.
Milgram (Yale) obedience studies ( )
Sought explanation for German soldiers behavior
If "following orders" - genuine explanation & justification for actions not ordinarily performed
Present (some efforts to reduce human protections)
Cancer research
AIDS (AZT) research

63. What have we learned? Protections for Human participants needed
Common Rule (45 CFR (f))
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Institutional Oversight and Review
Implementing the Common Rule and other subparts...
Contemporary emphasis on the ‘rights’ of people to take risks to save themselves

64. U.S. Dept. of Health & Human Services (HHS)
Human Subjects?
45 CFR (f)
U.S. Dept. of Health & Human Services (HHS)
Policy for Protection of Human Research Subjects
Any “living individual(s) about whom an investigator conducting research obtains:
(1) data through intervention or interaction with the individual; or
(2) identifiable private information”
Exemptions include research involving established educational settings, use of educational tests, involving use of existing data if unidentifiable or publicly available, conducted by department heads, or taste and food quality evaluation.

65. Human Subject Research?
If it qualifies under the definition of human subject research, then
Federally funded research requires review and approval by IRB.
Regardless of funding - University of Idaho requires review and approval by its Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Human Assurances Committee (HAC)
Bottom Line:
All research involving human subjects requires IRB review and approval; exemptions are determined by IRB, not individual researchers.

66. Respect for Persons
Requirement to acknowledge autonomy and the requirement to protect those with diminished autonomy.
Individuals have the right to make their own decisions for and about themselves…
With all relevant information…
And without undue influence or coercion…
Key mechanisms:
Informed Consent Procedure
Right to Withdrawal
Privacy and Confidentiality

67. Beneficience
An obligation to maximize benefits and reduction of risk for the participant.
Determining allowable risks…
Demonstrate some benefit, direct or indirect?
Key mechanism:
IRB process:
risk/benefit analysis
feasibility of study

68. Ethical Issues
Voluntary participation

69. Ethical Issues
Voluntary participation
Informed consent

70. Ethical Issues
Voluntary participation
Informed consent
Risk of harm

71. Ethical Issues Voluntary participation Informed consent Risk of harm
Anonymity

72. Ethical Issues Voluntary participation Informed consent Risk of harm
Anonymity
Confidentiality

73. Ethical Issues Voluntary participation Informed consent Risk of harm
Anonymity
Confidentiality
Right to services

74. Institutional Review Boards
Mechanism
Reviewing proposed research
Protecting the institution and researcher
Submitting an IRB proposal (UI HAC)
Complete UI form (
Research Ethics exam
(UI HAC)
“Protecting Human Research Participants” Exam