1. The Consultancy Project Session 4
Defining and Selecting a Research Strategy

2. Research Strategy Learning Objectives
After completing this session you should be:
Able to distinguish between deductive and inductive approaches to research.
Able to differentiate between exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research studies.
Able to explain the main research strategies.
Able to explain differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Able to distinguish between different types of combined or mixed methods of research.
Able to explain the concepts of validity and reliability.

3. Research Strategy Research Approaches
Deduction : Testing Theory
Induction : Building Theory
Combining Research Approaches

4. Research Strategy Deduction : Testing Theory
This involves the testing of a theoretical proposition by employing a research strategy that is designed for that purpose.
This is the dominant approach adopted by the natural sciences and is also often employed in economics and psychology.
Sequential Stages of the Deductive Approach:
1. Deducing a hypothesis from theory;
2. Expressing the hypothesis in terms that propose a relationship between specific concepts or variables.
3. Testing the hypothesis.
4. Examining the specific outcomes of the enquiry.
5. And if appropriate modifying the theory.

5. Research Strategy Key Characteristics of the Deductive Approach
Independence of Researcher : In order to pursue the principle of scientific rigour the researcher should be independent of what is being observed.
Highly Controlled : Often employing the concept of ‘control’ and ‘experimental’ groups (eg in medical research the control group is given a placebo).
Replication : Highly structured methodology to facilitate replication by other researchers (eg to test research findings).
Quantification : The need to operationalise concepts in ways that enable facts to be measured quantitatively.
Reductionism : This posits that problems are better understood if they are reduced to their simplest possible elements.
Generalisation : For example, in order to be able to generalise statistically about regularities in human behaviour it will be necessary to select samples of sufficient numerical size.

6. Research Strategy Induction : Building Theory
The development of a theory as a result of the observation of empirical data.
Theory therefore follows observation.
Although this approach was developed in the natural sciences its application is more widespread in the social sciences.

7. Research Approaches Major Differences
Deductive Emphasises
Scientific principles;
Moving from theory to data;
Need to explain causal relationships between variables;
Collection of quantitative data;
Application of controls in order to ensure validity of data;
Highly structured approach;
Researcher ‘independence’;
Selection of samples of sufficient size in order to be able to generalise conclusions.
Inductive Emphasises
Gaining an understanding of the meanings humans attach to events;
An understanding of the research context;
Collection of qualitative data;
More flexible structure to permit changes in research question as research proceeds;
Realisation that the researcher is part of the research process;
Less concern with need to generalise research conclusion.

8. Research Approaches Social Sciences
Perceived limits of the deductive approach in the Social Sciences:
It enabled a cause-effect link to be made between particular variables without an understanding of the way in which humans interpreted the social world.
It tended to encourage the use of a rigid research methodology that inhibited the consideration of alternative explanations.
Perceived strengths of the inductive approach in the Social Sciences:
This approach will more likely encourage consideration of the context within which the research is taking place.
It is much more amenable to qualitative rather than quantitative research methods.

9. Research Approaches Combining Approaches
“…So far we have conveyed the impression that there are rigid divisions between deduction and induction. This would be misleading. Not only is it perfectly possible to combine deduction and induction within the same piece of research, but also in our experience it is often advantageous to do so.”
Saunders et al, 2007, 119.

10. Research Approaches Selecting a Research Approach
Nature of the research topic
A topic that has a wealth of literature from which one can define a theoretical framework and hypothesis will more readily lend itself to deduction.
Those topics that are relatively new (little prior research and/or literature) and are sparking a lot of debate will tend to lend themselves to induction.
Time available
The deductive approach may be quicker.
The inductive approach can be quite protracted, requiring longer periods of data collection.

11. Research Approaches Selecting a Research Approach
Level of Risk
The deductive approach is less risky.
The inductive approach has to live with the risk that no discernible pattern emerges from the data collected.
Audience
You will need to consider who will read your project, for example, managers are more likely to be impressed by the ‘hard’ (quantifiable) evidence associated with the deductive approach.
The preferences/views of your project supervisor is also important.

12. Research Strategy Research Purposes
Exploratory Studies
Descriptive Studies
Explanatory Studies

13. Research Strategy Research Purposes
Exploratory Studies
A useful means of finding out what is happening; seeking new insights; asking questions and assessing phenomena in a new light (Robson, 2002).
There are three principle ways of undertaking exploratory research:
1. A search of the literature;
2. Interviewing ‘experts’ in the subject;
3. Conducting focus group interviews.
Although, by definition, the focus of the research will initially be broad it should become progressively narrow as the research proceeds.

14. Research Strategy Research Purposes
Descriptive Studies
Descriptive research seeks to accurately describe persons, events or situations (Robson, 2002).
This may be essential in helping the researcher to broadly define and describe the phenomena s/he wishes to collect data about prior to its collection.
Description, in management and business research, has its place and importance but is not a sufficient basis for a research project.
Analysis and explanation of the data is an essential requisite.
Descriptive studies, therefore, should be thought of as a means to an end rather than an end itself!

15. Research Strategy Research Purposes
Explanatory Studies
These seek to establish causal relationships between variables.
The emphasis here is on the study of a situation in order to explain & understand the relationships between variables.
This will be an essential part of your research/consultancy project!

16. Research Strategy Types of Research Strategies
Each of the research strategies listed below may be used for exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research.
Some strategies are more suited for deductive research & others more suited for inductive research.
Types of Research Strategies
~ Experiment
~ Survey
~ Case Study
~ Action Research
~ Grounded Theory
~ Ethnography
~ Archival Research

17. Research Strategy Experiment
The classical research form, used mainly in the natural sciences, but also common in the social sciences, especially in psychology.
The purpose of an experiment is to study causal relationships between two or more variables, eg whether a change in an ‘independent’ variable will produce change in another ‘dependent’ variable.

18. Research Strategy Experiment (continued)
This approach will typically involve the following steps:
Definition of a theoretical hypothesis;
Selection of samples of individuals from known populations;
Random allocation of samples to different experimental conditions, the ‘experimental’ and the ‘control’ group.
Introduction of planned intervention/manipulation of one or more of the variables.
Measurement of the changes in the ‘dependent’ variables.
Control of all the other variables.
Very limited applicability in business and management research.

19. Research Strategy Survey
This is usually associated with the deductive approach.
It is an extremely popular and common strategy in business and management research.
It is most frequently used to answer ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘how many’ and ‘how much’ questions and therefore tends to be used for exploratory and descriptive research.
It is popular because it allows the collection of a large amount of data from a sizable population in a highly economical way.
It is also popular because it is widely perceived as authoritative and is comparatively easy to explain and understand.
Survey techniques include the use of questionnaires, structured interviews and structured observation.
All of these techniques will be explored in more detail in later sessions.

20. Research Strategy Case Study
This has been defined as a strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomena within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence (Yin, 2003).
This strategy is particularly effective in providing a rich understanding of the context of the research and the processes being enacted.
This is most often used in explanatory and exploratory research.
The data collection methods used will be multiple and varied, including interviews, observation, documentary analysis and questionnaires.
This will involve Triangulation, which refers to the use of different data collection methods within one study in order to enable the cross-checking of research findings from different sources.

21. Research Strategy Action Research
This is concerned with the management of a change and involves a close collaboration between practitioners and researchers.
It differs from other research strategies because of its explicit focus on action, in particular promoting change within the organisation.
It is particularly useful for ‘how’ questions.
The main strengths of action research is its focus on change, it recognises that time needs to be devoted to diagnosing, planning, taking action and evaluating and the involvement of employees (practitioners) throughout the process.
This approach is closely aligned with Schein’s concept of the ‘process consultant’, discussed in Session 1.

22. Research Strategy Grounded Theory
This involves the development of theory from data generated by a series of observations or interviews, principally involving the inductive approach.
Theory is developed from data generated by a series of observations.
These data lead to the generation of predictions which are then tested in further observations that may confirm, or otherwise, the predictions.
Collis & Hussey (2003), have suggested that this constant reference to data to develop and test theory involves both inductive & deductive approaches.

23. Research Strategy Grounded Theory (continued)
Although principally associated with the inductive approach, grounded theory is better understood in terms of a process of ‘theory building’ through a combination of induction and deduction.
This approach is particularly useful in predicting and explaining human behaviour and because much of business and management research is about human behaviour, it is arguable, that this strategy is particular suitable.

24. Research Strategy Ethnography
This firmly rooted in the inductive approach and originates from anthropology.
It focuses upon describing and interpreting the social world through first-hand field study.
Its purpose is to describe and explain the social world the research subject inhabits in ways they would describe and explain it themselves.
This is a very time consuming strategy, involving researchers immersing themselves in the social world being researched as fully as possible.
The research process will need to be flexible and responsive to change as the researcher will be seeking to develop new patterns of thought about what is being observed.
This not a dominant research strategy in business and management.

25. Research Strategy Archival Research
This makes use of administrative records and documents as the principal source of data.
It should not be confused with secondary data analysis, which is concerned with the analysis of data recorded for another purpose, this is different because it is concerned with the analysis of administrative records and documents as primary sources of data.
These documents are viewed as the products of day-to-day activities and are therefore part of the reality being studied rather than having been originally collected as data for research purposes.
Archival research allows research questions which focus upon the past and changes over time to be answered, be they exploratory, descriptive or explanatory.
However, ones ability to answer such questions will inevitably be constrained by the nature and quality of the administrative records and documents,

26. Research Strategy Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
This predominantly refers to any data collection technique (such as a questionnaire) or data analysis process (such as graphs and statistics) that generate or use numerical data.
Qualitative Research
This predominantly refers to any data collection techniques (such as interview) or data analysis process (such as categorising data) that generates or use non-numerical data.
This will in the main refer to data recorded in words, but may also include data recorded in pictures and videos.

27. Research Strategy Combined Methods of Research
The Mono Method Approach
This refers to a research design or choice that uses one data collection method to answer a research question.
The Multi-Method Approach
This refers to a research design or choice that combines two or more data collection methods that are one type or another, ie multi-method quantitative or multi-method qualitative research.

28. Research Strategy Combined Methods of Research
The Mixed Method Approach
This refers to a research design or choice that mixes two or more data collection methods of different types, ie mixing quantitative with qualitative methods.
Two different types may be distinguished : the parallel or sequential mixing of qualitative and quantitative methods, the former may involve the combining of both methods (eg the quantifying of qualitative data) whereas the latter does not.

29. Research Strategy Reliability and Validity
The extent to which the data collection method or methods will yield consistent findings:
Will the measures yield the same results on other occasions?
Will similar observations be reached by other observers?
Is there transparency in how sense was made of the raw data.
Validity
1. The extent to which the data collection method or methods accurately measure what they were intended to measure.
2. The extent to which the research findings are really about what they profess to be about.
Saunders et al, 2007

30. Research Strategy Discussion Questions
Compare and contrast deductive and inductive approaches to research and explain your preferences.
Select a research strategy and consider its main advantages and disadvantages.
Choose to explore research reliability or validity and identify those factors that may inhibit your ability to achieve the former or the latter. How may you seek to counter these potential problems?
Please Post Your Comments for Discussion
These may be included in your ‘Assessment Profile’
You need not post a response to all of the discussion questions.
Please select at least one topic.