1. FEM4105 (3+0): Psychology of Personality & Human Dynamics BS(PM)-PJJ 2.1 Clinical Research Method 2.2 Experimental Method 2.3 Correlational Method 2.4 Research Ethics WEEK 2: Approaches in Studying Personality INSTRUCTOR: SITI NOR BINTI YAACOB, PhD. sitinor@upm.edu.my/012-2841844

2. Introduction  A personality theory must be testable.  Development of theories:  New theory is developed  Existing is modified/elaborated/discarded  Involves questions about why people behave, think and feels the way they do.  Some interested in overt and observable; some measure individual feelings and conscious experience.

3. Introduction  3 major research methods:  The Clinical method  The Experimental method  The Correlational method  Differences:  Types of observation made  Circumstances in which observation made  How data from observation are examined

4. Clinical Research Method  Popular among psychologist and counselor.  Case study or case history to assess respondents background and understand their personality and source of emotional problems.  Developed by Sigmund Freud, probe into past experience and search for causes of present neurotic behavior (in psychoanalysis theory).  Generalize result from similarities of samples.  Provides a wider, in-depth and wealthy understanding on human personality.

5. Clinical Research Method  Limitation:  Data obtained are more subjective-internal, mental and unconscious early life experience.  Interpretation of subjective data obtained may be exposed to and reflect therapists/ psychologists personal biases  Memories of childhood events or unconscious elements may be distorted over time, thus their accuracy could be questionable.  Tools used: audio, video, manually recorded

6. Experimental Method  A technique to determine the effect of one or more variables or events on behavior, by control or arrange ‘unneeded’ variables in an experimental setting.  Only the needed variables are allowed to be operate while the others hold constant or be eliminated during the experiment.  Useful to determine the causal relationship between variables:  Independent variables(IV): to be manipulated  Dependent variables(DV): to be observed

7. Experimental Method  To ensure no other variables (other than prepared IV) influences on DV, two groups of subjects must be selected from the same population:  Experimental group: be manipulated  Control group: no manipulation variables  Pre-test and post test: To determine whether there are certain effects due to the experimentation (manipulation).  Pre-test: Carried out before the actual test to ensure no unwanted influence from other variables. Since no manipulations, measurement must be similar for both groups.

8. Experimental Method  Limitation:  Due to safety and ethical considerations, some aspects of behavior and personality cannot be rigidly controlled under the laboratory conditions.  There may be cases where the changes of personality are not due to manipulation of variables but subjects themselves as they know they are in test and try to behave as expected.  Sometimes the result is difficult to be generalized in the real-life setting environment.  Not all variables can be manipulated.

9. Correlational Method  To predict and understand the relationship between the target variables.  Examples: To determine the relationship between students motivation (IV) and their academic achievement (DV).  Both variables will be measured in the study.  It is important that both variables are not being manipulated or change, so that the chances and strength of the relationship between variables can be predicted.

10. Correlational Method  The statistical test that is used to determine the relationship is known as correlation coefficients.  Provides precise information of the relations:  Directions: positive or negative correlation  Strength: range from +1.00 to -1.00  A positive (direction) high score (strength) correlation between the two variables indicates that the higher the IV, the better the DV. In other words, IV predicts DV.

11. Correlational Method  Limitation:  It only gives information about the relationship between variables.  Correlation does not prove causation or causal relationship.  Not able to capture subjects’ feelings and behavior correctly.

12. Research Ethics  The issue on research ethics lies in the research methodology itself:-  What are the rights of the subject involved?  Is it ethical to manipulate subjects understudied?  Four ethical issues (Wulff, 1979; Sigma Xi, 1986):-  1. Consent: Respondents have the choice whether to participate in the study or not.  Capacity: able to acquire or retain knowledge, and the authority, legal qualification perform act.  Information: subjects need to be informed about the purpose of the study and their roles as respondents.  Voluntariness: subjects have the right to choose to involve based on his/ her free and able to withdraw from the study at anytime. No force, fraud or deceit.

13. Research Ethics  2. Harm: Subjects cannot be harm by the research, which includes physical harm, psychological stress, personal embarrassment, and humiliation. Dignity always come first to reduce risks as much as possible.  3. Privacy: Anonymity is important and not being exposed or violated as subjects has the rights to keep silent of their involvement to prevent harms.  4.Deception: Misrepresentation or purposive omission of facts related to the aim, nature, or consequences of research can be the reasons to sue researcher if subjects get harms from it.