2. Motivation

4. 4 Theories of Motivation Instinct Theory: we are motivated by our inborn automated behaviors. But instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of our behaviors.

5. Drive-Reduction Theory Our behavior is motivated by physiological needs. Wants to maintain homeostasis. When we are not, we have a need that creates a drive. Primary versus Secondary drives.

6. Arousal Theory We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal. Yerkes-Dodson Law. Curiosity motive gives support to the arousal theory.

7. Maslow’s Hierarchy (Theory) of Needs Abraham Maslow said we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal. We are driven to satisfy the lower level needs first.

8. Physiological Needs Food Air Water Sex Basic Human Needs

9. Safety Needs  Protection  Stability  Pain Avoidance  Routine/Order Safety and Security

10. Love and Belonging  Affection  Acceptance  Inclusion Social Needs

11. Esteem Needs  Self-Respect  Self-Esteem  Respected by Others Esteem

12. Self-Actualization  Achieve full potential  Fulfillment

13. Motivation of HUNGER

14. Biological Basis of Hunger Washburn showed that stomach contractions accompany our feelings of hunger, but… hunger does NOT come from our stomach. It comes from our… Brain What part of the brain?

15. Hypothalamus Lateral Hypothalamus When stimulated it makes you hungry. When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again. Ventromedial Hypothalamus When stimulated you feel full. When lesioned you will never feel full again.

16. Set Point Theory The hypothalamus acts like a thermostat. Wants to maintain a stable weight. Leptin theory: Hypothalamus senses rises in leptin and will curb eating and increase activity or metabolism.

17. Body Chemistry Glucose (blood sugar). The hormone insulin diminishes blood glucose partly by converting glucose to fat. When glucose levels drop - hunger increases.

18. Other Appetite Hormones Grehlin – secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain. Orexin – hunger triggering hormone secreted by the hypothalamus. PYY – digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m NOT hungry” signals to the brain.

19. Psychological Aspects of Hunger Internals versus Externals. The Garcia Effect.

20. Taste Preferences Food taste better and we chew less when we are hungry (beginning of a meal). Food tastes worse and we chew more when we are not hungry (at the end of the meal). It’s weird, the better the food tastes, the less time we leave it in our mouths.

21. Culture and Hunger

22. Criadillas - bull testicles. Mice Wine Dog Fried Frog Legs

23. Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa Characterized by binging (eating large amounts of food) and purging (getting rid of the food).

24. Anorexia Nervosa Starve themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight. See themselves as fat. Vast majority are woman.

25. Obesity Severely overweight to the point where it causes health issues. Mostly eating habits but some people are predisposed towards obesity.

26. Body Image

27. Sexual Motivation

28. Sex is natural. Without sex, none of us would be here. How do scientists (or you) find out about sex? YOU ASK!!!!!!

29. Alfred Kinsey Confidential interviews with 18,000 people (in early 1950’s) re: SEX! Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Scale of sexuality….0 to 6 where 0 is exclusively heterosexual and 6 homosexual and 7 is exclusively homosexual.

30. Kinsey’s Studies Most men and half of all women have premarital sex. Almost all men and women masturbate. Women who had orgasms while masturbating were more likely to report having orgasms after marriage. Good Start- but major problems with his study - sampling, questions etc…

31. Masters and Johnson Study In the 1960’s William Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex. 382 females and 312 males. After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to turn gay people straight.

32. Sexual Response Cycle Initial Excitement. Plateau Phase. Orgasm. Resolution Phase (with refractory period).

33. Psychological Factors in Sexual Motivation Only some people are externals when it comes to hunger - but we are all externals when it comes to sex. People can find sexually explicit images either pleasing or disturbing - but they will be biologically aroused.

34. Can External Sexual Stimuli Have Adverse Effects? Viewing X-Rated films can diminish people’s satisfaction with their own partners. Expectations change. After viewing attractive women or men on TV - people judge their own partners as less attractive. Movies of women being coerced or forced into sex tend to increase the viewer’s acceptance of the false idea that women can enjoy it.

35. Imagined Stimuli Images inside our heads can also effect our sexual motivation. Both dreams and daydreams can lead to orgasm. 95% of men and women have had sexual fantasies. But men fantasize about sex more often.

36. Adolescent Sexuality & Culture About ½ of all high school kids in US report having sex - rates are higher in Western Europe but lower in Arab or Asian countries. Also change over time in the same culture: in 1900 3% of women reported having sex by 18. Now that number is around half.

37. Only about 1/3 of sexually active male teenagers use condoms - WHY? Ignorance Guilt around sex No communication Alcohol Use Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity

38. We have discussed the energizing of sexual motivation but have yet to discuss its direction: Sexual Orientation An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own gender or the other gender.

39. How is Sexual Orientation Determined? There has been NO evidence that sexuality is socially determined. Kids raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay than if they were raised by heterosexual parents. Therefore it is most likely biologically determined.

40. The Brain Simon LeVay discovered that there is a cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women or homosexual men. But when did the brain difference begin? At conception? In the womb? During childhood or adolescence?

41. Prenatal Environment Current research seems to point to the hormonal levels in the prenatal environment. We have created homosexual male fruit flies and lesbian sheep!!!

42. Achievement Motivation A desire for significant accomplishments; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard.

43. Achievement Motivation What motivates us to work? (School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..) Intrinsic Motivators Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction. Extrinsic Motivators Reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money or etc..) Overjustification effect.

44. Overjustification Effect Occurs when an expected external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task. Once rewards are no longer offered, interest in the activity is lost; prior intrinsic motivation does not return, and extrinsic rewards must be continuously offered as motivation to sustain the activity.

45. Motivation at Work Some view their work as a “job” – just a way to make money. Some view their work as a “career” – a way to advance up to higher positions. And some view their work as a “calling” – a fulfilling and socially useful activity. Flow – completely involved, focused state of consciousness like being in a “zone” while working.

46. Motivation at Work Industrial-Organizational Psychology – applies psychology’s principles to the workplace to optimize human behavior. Personnel Psychology – applies psychology’s methods and principles to selecting and evaluating workers.

47. Personnel Psychology Interviewer illusion – overconfidence of the interviewer to evaluate the interviewee. Halo errors – happens when the overall evaluation of an employee is positively biased because the employee has one positive trait, like friendliness.

48. Leadership Style Task Leadership: goal oriented leadership that sets standards and organizes work. Social Leadership: group oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict and offers support.

49. Management Theory Management/Teaching styles relate closely to Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators. Theory X Assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money. Must never be trusted and always be watched. Only interested in Maslow’s lower needs. Theory Y Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive. Interested in Maslow’s higher needs.

50. When Motives Conflict (Conflict Situations) Approach-approach conflict (+ vs. +). Avoidance-avoidance conflict (- vs. -). Approach-avoidance conflict (+ & -). Double approach- avoidance conflicts (+ & - vs. + & -).