1. CHAPTER FIVE (Part II) Sampling and Survey Research

2. Surveys Surveys are instruments that measure attitudes, opinion, or claimed behavior and seldom the behavior itself. Surveys are excellent for primary data gathering.

3. Other Purposes for Surveys Descriptive survey research – a survey which uses statistical probability theory to assess sampling error, i.e., is the sample generalizable to the whole population. Analytic survey research – a survey which explores the cause and effect relationship, i.e., after the fact – as opposed to the experiment which seeks rival causal factors before the experiment. Surveys are useful for political and consumer polls - an effective method to address scientific question and the causality problem.

4. Types of Surveys Types Of Surveys Mail Questionnaires Field Interviews Self-Report Surveys Telephone Surveys

5. Questionnaire Construction The following are criteria to consider: Problem formulation and the data that is required – what is the research question or problem (hypotheses and variables)? What is to be measured and can the instrument address this? Establish a variable list or the concepts that are to be measured. Operationalize the concept – specify how the variable can be measured Sampling size – suitable for large population samples (probability samples) Dummy tables – cross-tabulations Pretest – exploratory testing of the instrument using subjects similar to the group to be studied. A pretest points out misunderstandings or confusions and suggests proper wording.

6. Questionnaire Wording First, consider who is the target population? Then identify who should answer the question., i.e., head of household or any adult member of the household. Do not assume that the respondents have all the information necessary to make a meaningful or informed decision. Consider which is best, open-ended (structured) or closed-ended questions (unstructured).

7. Open-ended vs. Closed-ended Questions Closed-ended questions refer to those structured questions that can be answered by a short response selected from a limited number of options, i.e., often, sometimes, never; yes or no; identify a specific person, place, time, or quantity. Open-ended questions are unstructured and permit respondents to express their attitudes, i.e., Do you agree that blacks are discriminated against at different stages of the criminal justice system? If so, which stage or stages?

8. Question What is a major disadvantage of open-ended questions?

9. Question Ordering Question Order – May or may not have an effect on responses, it depends on the conditions (Pretest); i.e., demographic data, logical sequence, and “first impression.” Issues to consider when ordering: Saliency effect – does it change the context of the response or attitude of respondent? Redundancy effect – does it repeat or overlap questions? Consistency effect – do earlier judgments affect later judgments? Fatigue effect – generally develops with long interviews – questions toward the end may not reflect a consistent relationship to earlier questions. Rapport effect – helps correct fatigue effect because of interviewer rapport.

10. Question When organizing a questionnaire, what is meant by “first impressions last?” Where in the survey instrument should demographic information be placed?

11. Questionnaire Concerns: Memory errors are important concerns for surveys. For example, forgetting an event or compression – thinking an event happened more recently than it did.

12. Methods of questionnaire survey administration include the following: Mail, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, and self-administered interviews (face-to-face or mailed responses). Neither method is more superior, it depends on research question.

13. Advantages of Mail Surveys as a Means of Data Gathering Wide geographical coverage Minimal cost and effort No field staff required No interviewer bias effects Greater privacy for respondents Opportunity for more considered replies

14. Disadvantages of Mail Surveys Non-response Slow response Possible misinterpretation of questions Costly follow-up Ways to avoid: shortened format, timing, sponsorship, endorsement, etc.

15. Questions Has the response rate for mail surveys increased or decreased in recent years? Do nonrespondents differ from respondents in mail surveys? If so, how do they differ?

16. Self-Report Surveys Self-report surveys are data-gathering methods which involve asking respondents to admit to various behaviors, i.e., National Crime Victimization Survey, Drug Use Forecasting Program, and National Youth Survey. Major concerns are validity and reliability due to a poor choice of subjects or measurement instrument and a lack of replication. Solutions include the following: check other data, follow-up interviews, interview other subjects, use or threat of polygraph, known-group validation, and lie scales (measures of internal consistency).

17. Questions Name two different forms of internet surveys? What are the advantages and disadvantages of internet surveys?