Bell Ringer 2.15.2012 Objective: SWBAT define 3 major debates in developmental psych & 3 methods of research. REMEMBER YOUR READING ASSIGNMENT! On your.

Bell Ringer Objective: SWBAT define 3 major debates in developmental psych & 3 methods of research. REMEMBER YOUR READING ASSIGNMENT! On your bell ringer, briefly define “development” in psychology in your own words. PRINT 1ST TWO DAYS AND MONDAY 3.21

Key Ideas: Nature vs. Nurture Physical development
Continuity vs. Discontinuity Cognitive development Stability vs. Change Moral development Research designs – longitudinal, cross-sectional, cohort-sequential, retrospective Social development Emotional development Gender roles and sex differences

Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology: the study of physical, intellectual, social, and moral changes across the life span from conception to death. Developmental psychologists attempt to describe, explain, and predict age-related behaviors.

Nature vs. Nurture nature–nurture controversy: deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior. Today, psychologists agree that it is both, but disagree as to the extent of each.

Nature vs. Nurture The nativist (nature) perspective says that the basic structures for our behavior are genetically determined, and their expression depends on interaction with the environment.

Nature vs. Nurture maturation: biological growth processes that bring about orderly changes in behavior, thought, or physical growth, relatively unaffected by experience.

Nature vs. Nurture Behaviorists argue that physical structures are genetically inherited and intellectual structures are learned – environment shapes us. Twin studies are conducted to try to determine the relative contributions of nature and nurture.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity
continuity–discontinuity controversy : deals with the issue of whether development is a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages. Continuity focuses on quantitative changes in number or amount. e.g. height and weight

Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Discontinuity focuses on qualitative changes in kind, structure, or organization. e.g. resolving conflicts or develop abilities in stages through which everyone passes in the same order and that build upon another.

Stability vs. Change stability–change controversy: deals with the issue of whether or not personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the lifespan. Psychoanalysts believe that personality traits developed in the first 5 years predict adult personality.

Stability vs. Change Change theorists argue that personalities are modified by interactions with family, experiences at school, and acculturation.

Stability vs. Change Developmental psychologists research which characteristics are most likely to remain stable and constant, and which are most likely to be flexible and subject to change. e.g. Energy level and outgoingness seem relatively stable. e.g. Social attitudes are more likely to change.

Methods of Studying Development
Developmental psychologists conduct experiments, naturalistic observations, correlational studies, and case studies to assess changes over time. They use four basic research designs: longitudinal, cross-sectional, cohort-sequential, and retrospective studies.

Longitudinal Studies longitudinal studies: the same participants are tested multiple times with same or similar tests. e.g. In 1921, Lewis Terman of Stanford University began studying a group of highly intelligent children who have been studied throughout their lives, providing important information about changes in intellectual functioning across the lifespan.

Longitudinal Studies Issues with longitudinal studies:
Can be expensive. Take a long time to produce results. You typically lose participants over time.

Cross-Sectional Studies
cross-sectional study: different age groups are tested at the same time. Study 15, 25, 35, 45, 55, 65, and 75-year-olds at the same time. Less expensive, don’t lose participants, and produce results quickly.

Cross-Sectional Studies
cohort effect: observed group differences based on the era when people were born and grew up, exposing them to particular experiences that many affect results of cross-sectional studies. e.g. growing up with or without computers.

Cohort-Sequential Studies
cohort-sequential study: combines cross-sectional and longitudinal to correct for cohort effect. cross-sectional groups are assessed at least two times over a span of months or years, rather than just once.

Cohort-Sequential Studies
Results from one cohort are compared with other cohorts at the same age to evaluate their similarity. Differences indicate a cohort effect.

Retrospective Studies
retrospective (biographical) study: investigate development in one person at a time. Uses interviews and self-reports typically at the older end of the age span of interest.

Retrospective Studies
These can be very detailed but aren’t always correct because memory is not always accurate. They also cannot be generalized to a larger population.

Research Design Practice
With your table groups, choose one of the four research types and create a sample experiment to study how intelligence changes over time. DO NOT tell other groups what your design is. Then, describe who you will be studying. Share out to the class, who will guess your research design.

Physical Development Physical development focuses on maturation and critical periods. Quickest during prenatal development, second quickest during infancy, third quickest during adolescence. critical period: a time interval during which specific stimuli have a major effect on development that the stimuli do not produce at other times.

Bell Ringer Objective: SWBAT describe prenatal development and typical behaviors of neonates and infants. REMEMBER YOUR READING ASSIGNMENT! On your bell ringer, briefly describe one of the 4 types of research conducted by developmental psychologists. PRINT 1ST TWO DAYS AND MONDAY 3.21

Prenatal Development prenatal development: period of development that begins with fertilization, or conception, and ends with birth.

Prenatal Development zygote: a fertilized ovum with the genetic instructions for a new individual, normally contained in 46 chromosomes.

Prenatal Development During the first 2 weeks following conception, the zygote divides again and again forming first a hollow ball of cells that buries itself in the wall of the uterus. Then a three-layered inner cell mass surrounded by outer cells attached to the uterine lining. Different genes function in each layer.

Prenatal Development embryo: the developmental prenatal stage (from about 2 weeks through 2 months after fertilization) when most organ development begins. This is due to differentiation and specialization of cells.

Prenatal Development The placenta, umbilical cord, and other structures form from the outer cells. By the end of the 8th week, the embryo has a head with partially formed eyes, limbs, and a skeleton composed of cartilage.

Prenatal Development All organs are present in a basic form.
This is when the embryo is most sensitive to environmental stimuli, like chemicals and viruses.

Prenatal Development fetus: the developing human organism from about 9 weeks after conception to birth, when organ systems begin to interact. Sex organs and sense organs become refined. Bone replaces cartilage in the skeleton.

Birth Defects Birth defects result from a malfunctioning gene or an environmental stimulus. If the pregnant woman takes in poisonous chemicals or gets infected with a virus, development errors can result in birth defects that are not hereditary.

Birth Defects teratogen: harmful substances (drugs or viruses) during the prenatal period that can cause birth defects. Chemicals like alcohol, drugs, tobacco ingredients, mercury, lead, and other poisons.

Birth Defects Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): a cluster of abnormalities that occurs in babies of mothers who drink alcohol during pregnancy. Includes low IQ, small head with a flat face, misshapen eyes, flat nose, and thin upper lip, as well as some degree of intellectual impairment. It is currently the leading cause of mental retardation in the US.

Birth Defects

Birth Defects Cigarette smoking is associated with miscarriage, stillbirth, premature delivery, and low birth weight.

Birth Defects Heroin and cocaine exposed fetuses that are born live may undergo withdrawal symptoms, and may be unable to concentrate. Malnutrition and prescription and OTC drugs can cause birth defects.

Birth Defects Even high doses of certain nutrients can be teratogenic.
e.g. Too much vitamin A can cause heart, nervous system, and facial defects.

Birth Defects Viruses like rubella can cause cataracts, deafness, and heart defects during the first trimester. During later weeks effects include learning disabilities, speech and hearing problems, and Type 1 diabetes.

Behavior of the Neonate
neonate: newborn baby from birth to 1 month old. They are equipped with basic reflexes that increase their chances of survival.

reflex: the simplest form of behavior. rooting: the newborn’s tendency to move its head when stroked on the cheek, turn toward the stimulus as if searching for a nipple, and open its mouth. Rooting video.

sucking: the automatic response of drawing in anything at the mouth. swallowing: automatic contraction of throat muscles that enables food to pass into the esophagus without choking. Sucking reflex video.

grasping reflex: infant closes his or her fingers tightly around an object put in hand.

Moro (startle) reflex: when exposed to a loud noise or sudden drop, the neonate automatically arches his or her back, flings his or her limbs our, and quickly retracts them.

As the infant matures, developing voluntary control over behaviors, many reflexes disappear. Neonates also show behaviors that facilitate social interaction.

Shortly after birth, infants respond to human face, voice, and touch. They show a preference for the voice and odor of their mothers.

Their vision is best for objects normally about the distance from their eyes to the caretaker’s face. They can distinguish among colors, and they prefer certain complex patterns, such as the human face.

They prefer salty and sweet tastes. Their hearing is the most developed sense at birth, but as structures in the eye and brain develop during infancy, vision improves, and sight becomes the dominant sense.

Psychologists depend on gazes, sucking, and head turning in response to changing stimuli to reveal abilities of infants during psychological studies. Habituation: decreasing responsiveness with repeated presentation of the same stimulus.

Babies stare at new stimuli longer. Once they habituate, they can remember what they saw before and will stare longer at new stimuli.

Bell Ringer Objective: SWBAT describe adolescence, aging, and cognitive development. REMEMBER YOUR READING ASSIGNMENT! DUE WEDNESDAY 2/22 On your bell ringer, briefly describe ONE birth defect and ONE neonate reflex. PRINT 1ST TWO DAYS AND MONDAY 3.21

The First Two Years Physical development during the first two years is fast and impressive. Brain development proceeds rapidly, during which 20 billion brain cells are produced. Proliferation of dendrites in neural networks all over the body, starting from the head down, and from the center of the body outward.

The First Two Years Body proportions change as the torso and limbs grow more quickly, so that the head is less out of proportion to body size.

The First Two Years Babies learn to move in this order: lift head
roll over sit up crawl walk

Adolescence The next growth spurt comes during adolescence, following a dramatic increase in production of sex hormones. puberty: the early adolescent period, marked by accelerated growth and onset of the ability to reproduce.

Adolescence Primary sex characteristics: the reproductive organs (ovaries, uterus, and testes) and external genitals (vulva and penis). Secondary sex characteristics: the nonreproductive sexual characteristics. Developed breasts in females. Facial hair, Adam’s apple, and deepened voice in males. Pubic and underarm hair in both.

Bell Ringer Objective: SWBAT describe adolescence, aging, and cognitive development. REMEMBER YOUR READING ASSIGNMENT! DUE WEDNESDAY 2/22 On your bell ringer, briefly describe ONE birth defect and ONE neonate reflex. PRINT 1ST TWO DAYS AND MONDAY 3.21

Adolescence Menarche: First menstrual period at about age 12½, marks female fertility. Male fertility is marked by ejaculation of semen with viable sperm at about age 14. Early development in girls can be a disadvantage, while in boys it can be an advantage.

Adolescence Adolescent brain changes include selective pruning of dendrites and development of emotional limbic system and frontal lobes.

Adolescence

Aging Our physical abilities peak by our mid-20s, followed by an accelerating decline. How would evolutionary psychologists justify peaking at this time? It’s when people can provide for their children and maximize chances of survival.

Aging Advances in age are marked by: decreased vigor
changes in fat distribution loss of hair pigmentation wrinkles

Aging Menopause: in women about the age of 50, the cessation of the ability to reproduce accompanied by a decrease in the production of female sex hormones. Men experience a more gradual decline in reproductive function as they age.

Aging The lenses of the eye thicken, letting less light reach the retina and worsening near-sighted vision. The ability to detect high-pitched sounds decreases. Sensitivity to taste, odors, and temperature may decrease.

Aging Neural processes slow and parts of the brain begin to atrophy.
Staying physically and mentally active can slow these signs.

Aging Heart disease, stroke, cancer, Alzheimer’s, and other degenerative diseases are often terminal diseases of old age. On average, men die 4 years earlier than women.

Review 3 controversies in Developmental Psychology?
4 research models used? Stages of prenatal development? Environmental causes of birth defects are called…? A mother who drinks alcohol while pregnant risks…?

Review A neonate is a… They are born with reflexes, like (5 examples)…
Psychologists study babies by… Babies learn to move in this order.

Review Adolescence is marked by puberty, which is…
What are primary sex characteristics? What are secondary sex characteristics? Menarche is… Some physical signs of aging are… Menopause is…

Bell Ringer Objective: SWBAT describe cognitive and moral development. Take out your reading notes to be checked. On your bell ringer, briefly describe development from conception to death. PRINT 1ST TWO DAYS AND MONDAY 3.21

Theories of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who developed a stage theory of cognitive development based on decades of careful observation and testing of children. He recognized that children think differently from adults.

He thought that certain cognitive structures were innate, but only through a child’s interaction with the environment could they grow and develop over time. Piaget believed that all knowledge begins with building blocks called schemas, mental representations that organize and categorize information processed by our brains.

Assimilation: process by which we incorporate new information into our existing cognitive structures or schemas. Accommodation: process by which we modify our schemas to fit new information.

All four legged animals are “doggies.”

Sensorimotor Stage Sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s first stage (0-2 years) during which the infant experiences the world through senses and action patterns. Object permanence: awareness that objects still exist when out of sight. Happens around 8 to 10 months. Recently, psychologists have found that it develops gradually.

Sensorimotor Stage stranger anxiety: fear of unfamiliar people, indicating that they can differentiate among people they know and people they don’t know. Develops around 8 months old.

Preoperational Stage Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development (2-7 years) during which the child represents and manipulates objects with symbols (language) and is egocentric. Egocentrism: seeing the world from one’s own perspective; the inability to see reality from the perspective of another person.

Preoperational Stage Animism: belief of a preoperational child that all things are living. Artificialism: the belief of the preoperational child that all objects are made by people. While preoperational, a child uses trial and error to figure out how things work and answers questions intuitively rather than logically.

Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development (7-12 years) during which the child develops simple logic and masters conservation concepts.

Concrete Operational Stage
conservation concepts: changes in the form of an object do not alter physical properties of mass, volume, and number. They can recognize reversibility (transformations). e.g. 3+4 = 4+3

Formal Operational Stage
Piaget’s fourth stage of cognitive development (12+ years) during which the child begins to think logically about abstract concepts and engages in hypothetical thinking. Teens are able to consider questions involving abstract concepts, such as truth and justice.

Formal Operational Stage
Some believe that the ability to think abstractly decreases in older adults partially because these skills are not utilized as often.

Piaget emphasized that increases in reasoning skill over time were punctuated by shifts in perspective, which were qualitative from one stage to the next. With more experience, concrete operational thinkers cognitively reorganize their thinking to become the abstract thinkers of the formal operational stage.

Psychologists agree with the sequence of cognitive development steps and milestones proposed by Piaget. Critics fault him for not acknowledging that children go through the stages at different rates, often more quickly than he predicted, and for not understanding that change is more gradual and continuous.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of the environment and gradual growth in intellectual functioning. internalization: the process of absorbing information from a specified social environmental context.

Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Children learn form observing the interactions of others and through their own interactions within the environment. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development assigns a significant role to mentors such as parents, teachers, and other students.

Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working alone with difficulty, and the level at which a child can solve a problem with the assistance of adults or more-skilled children.

Cognitive Changes in Adults
fluid intelligence: diminishes with aging, requires speed or rapid learning. crystallized intelligence: learned knowledge and skills the generally improves with age (at least through the 60s).

Cognitive Changes in Adults
Alzheimer’s disease: a fatal degenerative disease in which brain neurons progressively die, causing loss of memory, reasoning, emotion, control of bodily functions, then death.

Bell Ringer Objective: SWBAT describe moral development and attachment. Write down your next reading assignment. On your bell ringer, briefly describe Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, including some of the milestones (e.g. object permanence). PRINT 1ST TWO DAYS AND MONDAY 3.21

Theories of Moral Development
moral development: growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically. Lawrence Kohlberg thought that moral thinking develops sequentially in stages as cognitive abilities develop

Kohlberg asked boys, male adolescents, and men how they would solve hypothetical moral problems. e.g. Heinz’s wife has an severe illness. There is a new drug that could save her life, but he cannot afford it. Should he steal the drug?

He suggested three basic levels of moral development consisting of two stages each. People do the right thing to: Preconventional Level: stage 1: avoid punishment, obey authority stage 2: further self-interests, gain reward

Conventional Level: most teenagers and adults are at this level. stage 3: conform, live up to expectations of others stage 4: maintain law and order, do your duty

Postconventional Level: reached by only some people. stage 5: social contract, to promote society’s welfare stage 6: to promote justice

People in individualistic societies are more likely to reach Kohlberg’s postconventional level. Carol Gilligan criticized Kohlberg’s study because it focused only on males and women rarely reach Kohlberg’s highest stage. She said women follow an ethic of care rather than justice.

Later studies have found that both men and women use both justice and care dimensions in their moral reasoning. Other critics point out that people are often inconsistent in their moral reasoning, even when dealing with their own moral dilemmas.

Moral ideals are not universal because of both cultural and cognitive factors influence moral development.

THEORIES OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
social development: the influence of others on the development of a person. culture: behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions transmitted from one generation to the next within a group of people who share a common language and environment.

Interactions Between Babies and Parents
bonding: the creation of a close emotional relationship between the parent and baby shortly after birth.

Attachment attachment: a close emotional bond or relationship between the infant and the caregiver. Harry Harlow found baby monkeys separated from their mothers.

Attachment They could choose between a soft cloth surrogate or a bare wire substitute with a feeding bottle. The baby monkeys chose the soft surrogate, showing attachment isn’t based on feeding.

Secure & Insecure Attachment
Mary Ainsworth’s “strange situation” research categorized type of attachment based on how baby reacted to, and after, temporary absence of their mother. A mother and baby play in a strange room. The mother leaves for a short while, and then returns.

secure attachment: with the mother, the played happily, explored their environment, and returned to their mothers periodically. baby cries when mother leaves. after absence, baby is happy to see mother, receptive to her contact. Mothers were generally sensitive and responsive to their babies needs.

insecure attachment: with the mother, the baby avoided or ignored them. baby may get upset and cry, or ignore the fact that their mother has left. after absence baby is angry and rejecting of mother, avoids her, ignores her, or behaves inconsistently.

Securely attached babies tend to become socially competent children.

Temperament Temperament: an infant’s natural disposition to show a particular mood at a particular intensity for a specific period. Both the infant’s heredity and his/her intrauterine environment affect their temperament.

Temperament easy babies: cheerful, relaxed; follow a predictable patterns of eating and sleeping. Tend to become sociable children. Difficult babies: irritable, intense, unpredictable. Tend to become less sociable children.

Temperament How the primary caregiver responds to the baby affects how the baby will react to an extent. Jerome Kagan showed that shy, inhibited babies can become more relaxed and less fearful with responsive parenting.

Awareness of Self and Others
Self-awareness: consciousness of oneself as a person. Social referencing: observing the behavior of others in social situations to obtain information or guidance. Both develop around ages 1 and 2.

The “rouge test,” in which a spot of rouge is secretly put on a baby’s nose, and then the baby is placed in front of a mirror to see if the baby realizes it is his/her nose with the red spot. Babies with self-awareness touch their own face. Babies without it reach out to the mirror.

Bell Ringer Objective: SWBAT describe parenting styles & Erickson’s stages of psychosocial development. New reading notes: Mod (p )  DUE Monday March 5. On your bell ringer, briefly describe Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. PRINT 1ST TWO DAYS AND MONDAY 3.21

Bell Ringer Objective: SWBAT describe parenting styles & Erickson’s stages of psychosocial development. New reading notes: Mod (p )  DUE Monday March 5. Take out your bell ringer from last week to turn in! PRINT 1ST TWO DAYS AND MONDAY 3.21

Parenting Styles Diana Baumrind identified four parenting styles that affect emotional growth of children. Authoritarian: sets up absolute and restrictive rules accompanied by punishment for disobedience.

Parenting Styles Authoritative: focuses on flexible rules for which reasons are generally given. Parents are warm and nurture independence within guidelines. Permissive: sets no firm guidelines for behavior and tends to give in to demands of the child.

Parenting Styles Uninvolved: makes few demands, shows low responsiveness and little communication. While these parents fulfill the children’s basic needs, they are generally detached from their children’s lives. In extreme cases, these parents may even reject or neglect the needs of their children.

Parenting Styles Baumrind and other reseachers found that for European and American families, the most self-reliant, socially competent children with the highest self-esteem have warm, authoritative parents.

Erikson’s Stage Theory of Psychosocial Development
Each stage of development requires a new level of social interaction. Erik Erikson examined development across the lifespan in a social context, recognizing that we continue to grow beyond our teenage years, and our growth is influenced by others.

Erikson’s Stage Theory of Psychosocial Development
His theory of psychosocial development identifies 8 stages during which we face an important issue or crisis. How we resolve each crisis shapes our personality and affects our relationships with others. Erikson’s theory most accurately describes development in individualistic societies.

Stage 1 Period: first year Crisis: trust vs. mistrust
Parents must provide a safe, consistent, and loving environment for children to leave this stage healthily with a strong trust that others care and will always be there for them. Mistrust, based on inconsistent, cold, or abusive situations, prevents children from leaving this stage ready to form lasting and close relationships in the future.

Stage 2 Period: second year Crisis: autonomy vs. shame/doubt
The child needs to develop self-control and do things for themselves. Can result in spills, falls, wetting and other accidents. Children who are encouraged to try new skills develop autonomy. Those who are ridiculed or overprotected may doubt their abilities and feel ashamed of their actions.

Stage 3 Period: 3-5 years Crisis: initiative vs. guilt
Children need to learn to make plans and carry out tasks through play, asking questions, making choices, and using their imaginations to develop initiative. If they are severely criticized, discouraged from asking questions, not permitted to make choices, or prevented from playing, children feel guilty.

Stage 4 Period: 6 years to puberty (school age)
Crisis: industry vs. inferiority Children need to be positively reinforced for productive activities in order to develop a healthy self-concept and sense of industry. If children’s efforts are considered inadequate, feelings of social or mental inferiority in this stage can carry over to a poor self-concept in the future.

Stage 5 Period: adolescence (~12-20)
Crisis: identity vs. role confusion “Who am I?” is the major task, which involves building a consistent identity, a unified sense of self. Failure of teens to achieve a sense of identity results in role confusion and uncertainty about who they are and where they are going.

Stage 6 Period: Young adulthood (~21-40)
Crisis: intimacy vs. isolation Intimacy involves deeply caring about others and sharing meaningful experiences with them, especially a life partner. Without intimacy, people feel alone and uncared for in life (isolation).

Stage 7 Period: Middle adulthood (~40-65)
Crisis: generativity vs. stagnation Adults need to express their caring about the next and future generations by guiding or mentoring others, or producing creative work that enriches the lives of others. Failure can lead to stagnation and preoccupation with one’s own needs and comforts.

Stage 8 Period: Late adulthood (~65-death)
Crisis: integrity vs. despair Those who look back at their lives with satisfaction that they have lived their lives well develop a sense of wholeness and integrity. Those in despair look back with regret and disappointment in the lives they’ve led.

Middle Age & Death Daniel Levinson described a midlife transition period at about age 40. Seen by some as their last chance to achieve their goals. mid-life crisis: the challenging experience of people who experience anxiety, instability, and change about themselves their work, and their relationships.

Middle Age & Death Elisabeth Kubler-Ross researched death and dying and concluded that terminally ill patients pass through five stages of coping: denial anger bargaining depression acceptance

Middle Age & Death Not all terminal patients pass through all stages, nor do they always go through them in this order.

Gender Roles & Sex Differences
Gender: the sociocultural dimension of being biologically male or female. gender roles: sets of expectations that prescribe how males and females should act, think, and feel. gender identity: person’s sense of being male or female.

gender stability: child’s understanding that sex identity is stable over time. gender consistency: child’s understanding that his/her sex won’t change even if he/she acts like the opposite sex.

Biological Perspective
differences between sexes are due to heredity. Males have 44 chromosomes, plus X and Y sex chromosomes. Females have 44 chromosomes, plus sex chromosomes X and X. The sex chromosomes determine the anatomical differences between sexes.

Biological Perspective
The Y chromosome contains the instructions for male sex organs and hormones. Females have larger corpus callosums, which might influence lateralization in the brain. Hormonal differences at puberty influence boys’ greater height, added musculature, and more aggressive tendencies.

Bell Ringer Objective: SWBAT describe different psychological perspectives on gender and sex. New reading notes: Mod (p )  DUE Monday March 5. Pick up the practice worksheet for Erickson’s & Piaget’s stages of development. PRINT 1ST TWO DAYS AND MONDAY 3.21

Evolutionary Perspective
Behavior tendencies prepare us to survive and reproduce. Males are more likely than females to be risk takers, show dominance, and achieve high status. Females are more likely to be concerned with their appearance in order to attract high-status, attractive males.

Psychoanalytic Perspective
Young girls learn to act feminine from their mothers while young boys learn to act masculine from their fathers.

Behavioral Perspective
children respond to rewards and punishments for their behavior. They observe and imitate significant role models, such as their parents, to acquire gender identity.

Cognitive Perspective
Children actively engage in making meaning out of information they learn about gender. gender schema: mental set of what society considers appropriate behaviors for each of the sexes.

gender role stereotypes: broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about males and females. Males are usually given instrumental traits, like self-reliance and leadership ability. Females are usually given expressive traits, like warmth and understanding.

Many psychologists now recognize androgyny as an alternative to binary gender roles. androgyny: the presence of desirable masculine and feminine characteristics in one individual.

gender typing: the acquisition of the roles associated with distinctions between male and female.

Sex Differences in Cognition
Meta-analysis has show that the differences within either gender are greater than the differences between genders. Males tend to have better ability to perform mental rotation tasks.

The only evidence that males show higher achievement in math than females is on the math section of the SAT. Females receive higher grades in math!

Recent research suggests that females who get better grades in high school and college may test poorly because of a phenomenon called stereotype threat. stereotype threat: anxiety that influence members of a group concerned that their performance will confirm a negative stereotype.

According to researcher Claude Steele, when they know that their performance is being compared to males, females tend to do less well than if they aren’t being compared.

Bell Ringer 2.15.2012 Objective: SWBAT define 3 major debates in developmental psych & 3 methods of research. REMEMBER YOUR READING ASSIGNMENT! On your.

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Bell Ringer 2.15.2012 Objective: SWBAT define 3 major debates in developmental psych & 3 methods of research. REMEMBER YOUR READING ASSIGNMENT! On your.

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