1. FBMK UPM 2007 1 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) CREDITS: 3 (3+0) LECTURER: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Faiz Abdullah Department of English Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication UPM

2. FBMK UPM 2007 2 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) UNIT 2: FUNDAMENTALS OF SPEECH COMMUNICATION At the end of the unit, students are able to: identify the major areas of speech communication, identify the major areas of speech communication, explain the general influence of culture and its relevance to communication, explain the general influence of culture and its relevance to communication, define communication and its components, and define communication and its components, and describe the relevance of general principles of communication to real life situations. describe the relevance of general principles of communication to real life situations.

3. FBMK UPM 2007 3 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Three Views about Speech Communication Linear View: Linear View: A (speaker) =====> B (listener) The Interactional View The Interactional View A (speaker) =======> B (listener) A (speaker) <======= B (listener) The Transactional View The Transactional View A  =================  B (speaker/listener) (speaker/listener)

4. FBMK UPM 2007 4 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Models of Speech Communication The Message Model derived from theories of animal communication systems derived from theories of animal communication systems sender encodes the message (M) into a public signal and the message receiver decodes the public signal sender encodes the message (M) into a public signal and the message receiver decodes the public signal Also known as the ‘two-box’ model Also known as the ‘two-box’ model

5. FBMK UPM 2007 5 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) The Message Model SPEAKER HEARER (M) (M) (E) Public Sounds Public Sounds Encoding Decoding Encoding Decoding

6. FBMK UPM 2007 6 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Assumptions of the Message Model Speaker has some Message (M) in his mind that s/he wants to communicate to Listener Speaker has some Message (M) in his mind that s/he wants to communicate to Listener Speaker uses language knowledge to encode the meaning of the Message (M) to produce the Expression (E) Speaker uses language knowledge to encode the meaning of the Message (M) to produce the Expression (E) Expression (E) comprises a series of public sounds Expression (E) comprises a series of public sounds On hearing the beginning of (E), hearer starts a decoding process: On hearing the beginning of (E), hearer starts a decoding process: Identifies incoming phonological (sound), morphological (word), and syntactic (clause/sentence) categories, and semantic content (meanings) in sequence Identifies incoming phonological (sound), morphological (word), and syntactic (clause/sentence) categories, and semantic content (meanings) in sequence Composes meaning of incoming sounds as successfully decoded message Composes meaning of incoming sounds as successfully decoded message

7. FBMK UPM 2007 7 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Assumptions of the message model (cont’d…) Model predicts that speech communication is successful as long as the hearer decodes the same message that the speaker has encoded Model predicts that speech communication is successful as long as the hearer decodes the same message that the speaker has encoded Conversely, communication unsuccessful or broken down if decoded message is different from encoded message Conversely, communication unsuccessful or broken down if decoded message is different from encoded message In sum, private ideas are communicated by making public sounds with the use of language as medium or vehicle of transmission of verbal message In sum, private ideas are communicated by making public sounds with the use of language as medium or vehicle of transmission of verbal message Classic ‘conduit’ model of language as communication Classic ‘conduit’ model of language as communication

8. FBMK UPM 2007 8 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Problems with the Message Model Linguistically ambiguous expressions e.g. Flying planes can be dangerous (hearer presumes speaker's remarks to be contextually appropriate); Linguistically ambiguous expressions e.g. Flying planes can be dangerous (hearer presumes speaker's remarks to be contextually appropriate); Unique shared reference in expressions E.g. The shrewd politician won the election (dependent upon context i.e. different people in different contexts); Unique shared reference in expressions E.g. The shrewd politician won the election (dependent upon context i.e. different people in different contexts); Communicative intent E.g. I'll be there tonight. (Is it a prediction, promise, or a threat?); Communicative intent E.g. I'll be there tonight. (Is it a prediction, promise, or a threat?); Non-literal speech (for purposes of irony, sarcasm, figurative use of language) i.e. in certain contexts, we mean the opposite of what we actually say; Non-literal speech (for purposes of irony, sarcasm, figurative use of language) i.e. in certain contexts, we mean the opposite of what we actually say;

9. FBMK UPM 2007 9 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Problems with the Message Model(cont’d…) Indirect speech - one communicative act is achieved by means of another within an appropriate context i.e. same expression to achieve different effects in appropriate contexts Indirect speech - one communicative act is achieved by means of another within an appropriate context i.e. same expression to achieve different effects in appropriate contexts E.g.(a) My car has a flat tyre. (At a petrol station): direct speech >> reporting state of affairs; indirect speech >>asking for help from pump attendant (b) My car has a flat tyre. (To a police officer): direct speech >>reporting state of affairs; indirect speech >>pleading against illegal parking? Situations where the goal is not message communication but an effect or change in the target situation E.g. firing someone from a job, passing sentence on a guilty person, intention to persuade, impress, deceive etc. Situations where the goal is not message communication but an effect or change in the target situation E.g. firing someone from a job, passing sentence on a guilty person, intention to persuade, impress, deceive etc.

10. FBMK UPM 2007 10 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Message Model – Summary Does not take into account shared system of beliefs, values, attitudes, and inferences that function as communication strategies in context Does not take into account shared system of beliefs, values, attitudes, and inferences that function as communication strategies in context Learning to communicate involves acquiring a range of such shared culture systems, presumptions as well as a system of inferential strategies. Learning to communicate involves acquiring a range of such shared culture systems, presumptions as well as a system of inferential strategies.

11. FBMK UPM 2007 11 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Presumptions of the Inferential Model of Language Communication LP (Linguistic Presumption) i.e. the speaker is capable of determining the meaning and the referents of the expression; LP (Linguistic Presumption) i.e. the speaker is capable of determining the meaning and the referents of the expression; CP (Communicative Presumption) - speaker has an identifiable communication intent unless there is evidence to the contrary; CP (Communicative Presumption) - speaker has an identifiable communication intent unless there is evidence to the contrary; PL (Presumption of Literalness) - listener assumes that speaker is speaking literally PL (Presumption of Literalness) - listener assumes that speaker is speaking literally ConPs (Conversational Presumptions): Relevance, Sincerity, Truthfulness, Quantity, Quality (Cf. Paul Grice's 'co-operative principle' [1975]) ConPs (Conversational Presumptions): Relevance, Sincerity, Truthfulness, Quantity, Quality (Cf. Paul Grice's 'co-operative principle' [1975])

12. FBMK UPM 2007 12 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) The Co-operative Principle The Co-operative Principle (Grice, 1975) refers to the ‘rules for co-operation’ between speakers and listeners so that communication can take place. Comprises such rules called ‘conversational maxims’: Maxim of Quantity (speak only as much as necessary) Maxim of Quantity (speak only as much as necessary) Maxim of Quality (speak truthfully) Maxim of Quality (speak truthfully) Maxim of Relevance (speak only about relevant things) Maxim of Relevance (speak only about relevant things) Maxim of Manner (speak clearly and briefly) Maxim of Manner (speak clearly and briefly)

13. FBMK UPM 2007 13 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) The Co-operative Principle (cont’d…) Maxims are used to imply meaning (conversational implicature) Maxims are used to imply meaning (conversational implicature) E.g. A: Let's go to the movies. (Invitation) B: I have an exam tomorrow. (Refusal) B: I have an exam tomorrow. (Refusal) (Maxim of Relevance at work) The Reality Principle refers to the ‘rule’ that people are expected to talk about real and possible things, unless there is evidence to the contrary The Reality Principle refers to the ‘rule’ that people are expected to talk about real and possible things, unless there is evidence to the contrary E.g. A:How are you going to New York? B:I'm flying. B:I'm flying.

14. FBMK UPM 2007 14 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Basic Elements in the Speech Communication Process Role of specific speech skills and competencies Integrity Integrity Knowledge Knowledge Rhetorical sensitivity Rhetorical sensitivity expressive, and instrumental purposes expressive, and instrumental purposes ‘Other’ orientation (i.e. being sensitive to the listener’s needs and problems ‘Other’ orientation (i.e. being sensitive to the listener’s needs and problems

15. FBMK UPM 2007 15 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Basic Elements (cont’d…) Oral skills: Fluency Fluency Articulation Articulation Voice control Voice control Body language Body language Other non-verbal aspects Other non-verbal aspects

16. FBMK UPM 2007 16 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) The Transactional Model Context of Situation Channel Message/Feedback Noise Speaker/Hearer (Attributes) Context of Culture

17. FBMK UPM 2007 17 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) The Transactional Model of Speech Communication An effective speech communication act as an interplay among various elements: Speaker Speaker Listener Listener Message Message Feedback Feedback Channel Channel Speech situation Speech situation Cultural context Cultural context

18. FBMK UPM 2007 18 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) The Transactional Model (cont’d…) The elements involved in the speech communication process function interactively and dynamically as: change in one element affects others (the ‘spider’s web’ effect). change in one element affects others (the ‘spider’s web’ effect). no single element controls the entire process. no single element controls the entire process. the whole process is context-sensitive. the whole process is context-sensitive.

19. FBMK UPM 2007 19 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Components/Elements of Speech Communication Context of Culture: Norms, values, beliefs, attitudes, rules and cultural maxims Norms, values, beliefs, attitudes, rules and cultural maxims Elements of speech communication are culture- specific Elements of speech communication are culture- specific Incidence of intercultural contact Incidence of intercultural contact Cross-cultural presentations Cross-cultural presentations Role of culture in communication competence (enculturation and acculturation) Role of culture in communication competence (enculturation and acculturation) Speech in public as transaction Speech in public as transaction

20. FBMK UPM 2007 20 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Components of speech (cont’d…) Speaker (Source-Receiver): an indispensable component in speech transactions an indispensable component in speech transactions source-encoding, simultaneous encoding and decoding, source-encoding, simultaneous encoding and decoding, Purpose – to entertain, inform, persuade, actuate etc. Purpose – to entertain, inform, persuade, actuate etc. Knowledge – subject-area competence, ands speaking skills Knowledge – subject-area competence, ands speaking skills Attitudes – towards self, listeners and subject; involves power relations with listeners and/or audience Attitudes – towards self, listeners and subject; involves power relations with listeners and/or audience Credibility (Ethos) – listener’s audience’s estimation of the speaker’s worth. It is perhaps the most important element that determines the acceptance of the speaker’s message. Credibility (Ethos) – listener’s audience’s estimation of the speaker’s worth. It is perhaps the most important element that determines the acceptance of the speaker’s message.

21. FBMK UPM 2007 21 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Components of speech (cont’d…) Listener (Source-Receiver): an indispensable component in speech transactions an indispensable component in speech transactions source-encoding, simultaneous encoding and decoding, source-encoding, simultaneous encoding and decoding, Purpose- like speakers, listeners have their own purposes for listening and these must be taken into account by the speaker; multiple purposes Purpose- like speakers, listeners have their own purposes for listening and these must be taken into account by the speaker; multiple purposes Knowledge and interest- affect response to speaker’s message – need for speakers to be aware of these in a general way so that expectations can be met to some extent Knowledge and interest- affect response to speaker’s message – need for speakers to be aware of these in a general way so that expectations can be met to some extent Listening skills – processing of the oral message -the speaker must look for evident signs of understanding and non-understanding Listening skills – processing of the oral message -the speaker must look for evident signs of understanding and non-understanding Attitudes about the speaker, the self, and the topic – importance of audience analysis before public speeches are made more effective Attitudes about the speaker, the self, and the topic – importance of audience analysis before public speeches are made more effective

22. FBMK UPM 2007 22 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Components of speech (cont’d…) Context of Situation: physical setting (physical environment, furniture, lighting, audio-visual equipment etc.) physical setting (physical environment, furniture, lighting, audio-visual equipment etc.) socio-psychological setting –social expectations and norms in specific settings– comprises interactions involving: people (relationships and levels of formality); place (classroom setting, ‘home’ setting); purpose (memorial service, political debate) socio-psychological setting –social expectations and norms in specific settings– comprises interactions involving: people (relationships and levels of formality); place (classroom setting, ‘home’ setting); purpose (memorial service, political debate) temporal setting (time of day influences message/feedback timing) temporal setting (time of day influences message/feedback timing) Includes immediate cultural setting Includes immediate cultural setting

23. FBMK UPM 2007 23 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Components of speech (cont’d…) Channel: media through which the message passes. Often multiple channels are in operation simultaneously: media through which the message passes. Often multiple channels are in operation simultaneously: verbal channel (words, phrases and sentences) verbal channel (words, phrases and sentences) visual channel (gestures, facial expressions, body language) visual channel (gestures, facial expressions, body language) pictorial channel (visual aids – charts, slides, graphs, objects) pictorial channel (visual aids – charts, slides, graphs, objects) aural channel (voice) aural channel (voice) paralinguistic channel (voice tone, pitch, loudness, speech tone, emotional overtones) paralinguistic channel (voice tone, pitch, loudness, speech tone, emotional overtones)

24. FBMK UPM 2007 24 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Components of speech (cont’d…) Message: Has content, structure, and style: Has content, structure, and style: Content – central topic and sub-topics, subject-matter, and issues Content – central topic and sub-topics, subject-matter, and issues Structure – pattern of organisation of speech or conversation that provides idea coherence Structure – pattern of organisation of speech or conversation that provides idea coherence Style – language variety, levels of formality, rhetoric and diction Style – language variety, levels of formality, rhetoric and diction Influenced by interaction of other elements in communication context (situation and culture). Influenced by interaction of other elements in communication context (situation and culture). Each message is a packages of verbal and/or non- verbal signals. Each message is a packages of verbal and/or non- verbal signals.

25. FBMK UPM 2007 25 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Components of speech (cont’d…) Feedback: Special categories of messages that can be divided into feedback and feedforward Special categories of messages that can be divided into feedback and feedforward Feedback - messages that are sent back to the speaker as a reaction to what was said - basis for speaker to modify/adjust subsequent messages which become feedback to listener. Feedback - messages that are sent back to the speaker as a reaction to what was said - basis for speaker to modify/adjust subsequent messages which become feedback to listener.

26. FBMK UPM 2007 26 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Components of speech (cont’d…) Noise: Physical – interference in the physical transaction Physical – interference in the physical transaction Psychological – cognitive or mental interference Psychological – cognitive or mental interference Semantic – conflict of meanings Semantic – conflict of meanings Communication Effects : intellectual, affective, and/or psychomotor changes in speakers and listeners intellectual, affective, and/or psychomotor changes in speakers and listeners every act of speech communication has consequence of some kind every act of speech communication has consequence of some kind

27. FBMK UPM 2007 27 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Some Notes on Feedback 6 important dimensions of feedback: positive  ====================  negative person-focused  ==============  message-focused immediate  ====================  delayed low-monitoring  ===============  high monitoring supportive  =====================  critical spontaneous  ==============  structured responses

28. FBMK UPM 2007 28 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Feedback (cont’d…) Feedback orientations*: Left orientation: intimate, interpersonal relationships Left orientation: intimate, interpersonal relationships Middle orientation: acquaintance relationships Middle orientation: acquaintance relationships Right orientation: relatively hostile, uneasy relationships Right orientation: relatively hostile, uneasy relationships *Orientations are not mutually exclusive categories, i.e. feedback can be supportive as well as critical (evaluative feedback)

29. FBMK UPM 2007 29 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Feedback (cont’d…) Feedforward: -information provided by speaker before sending a particular message to indicate nature of the message -information provided by speaker before sending a particular message to indicate nature of the message E.g. preface to a book, topic sentence of a paragraph, introduction to a public speech function as metamessage function as metamessage E.g. Wait till you hear this! I'm going to tell you a secret.

30. FBMK UPM 2007 30 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Feedback (cont’d…) Main functions of feedforward messages: to initiate channels of communication to initiate channels of communication E.g. phatic communion: Haven't we met before? to preview future messages to preview future messages E.g. I'm afraid I have bad news for you. to altercast - to assign a specific role to someone and address that person in that role to altercast - to assign a specific role to someone and address that person in that role E.g. As a parent, what do you think… to disclaim - to position message so that it does not reflect negatively on the speaker to disclaim - to position message so that it does not reflect negatively on the speaker E.g. I'm not supporting or denouncing the government, but I…

31. FBMK UPM 2007 31 B. A. (English Language) /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) Speech communication is social power… “Communication is power. Those who have mastered its effective use can change their own experience of the world and the world’s experience of them.” (Anthony Robbins)