1. Social and Personality Development in Early Childhood
Chapter 8:
Social and Personality Development in Early Childhood

2. Theories of Social and Personality Development Psychoanalytic Perspectives
Freud: gain control over bodily functions and renegotiate parent relationships
Anal Stage
Phallic Stage
Freud: Gain control over bodily functions and renegotiate parent relationships
Anal Stage
Toilet training battles
Control over bodily functions
Phallic Stage
Oedipus or Electra Complex
Identification with the same sex parent

3. Theories of Social and Personality Development Psychoanalytic Perspectives
Erikson: agreed with Freud with added focus on social skill development
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
Initiative versus Guilt
Freud and Erikson saw the changing role of the parent as the child exerts more control on the environment.
Freud and Erikson did not talk about peers or their significance in development.
Erikson: agreed with Freud with added focus on social skill development
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
Centered around toddler’s new mobility and desire for autonomy
Initiative versus Guilt
Ushered in by new cognitive skills
Developing conscience dictates boundaries

4. Personality and Self-Concept Me, myself, and more
Components of Self-Concept
Categorical Self
Emotional Self
Social Self
Self-Concept
Categorical Self
Focus on visible characteristics
Emotional Self
Acquisition of emotional self-regulation
Associated with peer popularity
Lack of control associated with aggression
Ability to obey moral rules
Associated with emergence of empathy
Social Self
Child sees self as player in social games
Learns many social scripts, which provide appropriate situational behaviors
Personality begins to replace temperament as children interact with peers and family.
Control of emotions shifts from parental control to the child.
Children begin to internalize the values of the parent.
Parents who expect age-related behaviors increase the switch to self control.

5. Gender Development Explanations and Theory:
Psychoanalytic Explanations
Social-Cognitive Explanations
Gender Schema Theory
Psychoanalytic Explanations
Identification with same sex parent
Social-Cognitive Explanations
Linked to gender-related behavior
Becomes motivated to exhibit same-sex behaviors
Parents shape sex role behaviors and attitudes
Gender Schema Theory
Learn gender scripts
Learn likes and dislikes of own gender
Develops a complex view of other gender

6. Gender Development Gender Concept Sequence
Gender understanding develops in stages:
Gender identity
Gender stability
Gender constancy
Gender understanding develops in stages:
Gender identity
Child’s ability to label his or her own sex correctly
Gender stability
Understanding that you are the same gender throughout life
Gender constancy
Recognition that someone stays the same gender even though appearances may change with clothing

7. Figure 8.2 Gender Stereotyping in a Child’s Drawing
“This is how I will look when I grow up.”
What is this five-year-old conveying about her understanding of gender?

8. Self and Gender Concept

9. Gender Development Sex-Role Knowledge
Gender stereotypes: Men
Gender stereotypes: Women
Women associated with gentleness, weakness, appreciativeness, and soft-heartedness
Men associated with aggression, strength, cruelty, and coarseness.
Children learn these stereotypes by 3 or 4
Can assign stereotypical behaviors to jobs, toys, and activities
By age 5, children begin to associate personality traits with gender
What are the stereotypes?

10. Gender Development Sex-Typed Behavior
Sex-type behavior:
Develops earlier than ideas about gender
Learned from older same-sex children
Learned differently by gender
Develops earlier than ideas about gender
18 – 24 months – children prefer sex-stereotyped toys
Age 3 – children prefer same-sex friends
Learn from older same-sex children
Sex-typed behaviors are learned differently.
Girls use an enabling style
Supporting a friend, expressing agreement, making suggestions
Boys use a constricting or restrictive style
Derails inappropriate interactions, bringing them to an end

11. Figure 8.3 Gender and Playmate Preferences
How would you structure preschooler play opportunities?

12. Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles: Diana Baumrind
Dimensions
Parenting Styles
Diana Baumrind
Focused on 4 dimensions
Warmth or nurturance
Clarity and consistency of rules
Maturity of expectations and demands
Communications between child and parent
Three parenting styles
Authoritarian
Permissive
Authoritative
Maccoby and Miller add uninvolved, neglecting

13. Figure 8.4 Control, Acceptance, Parenting Style
Maccoby and Martin expanded on Baumrind’s categories

14. Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles: Authoritarian
Parenting Characteristics
High levels of demand and control
Low levels of warmth and communication
Child Consequences
Good school performance
Lower self-esteem and less peer interaction skills
Some subdued; others highly aggressive
Traits last well into high school

15. Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles: Permissive
Parenting Characteristics
High in warmth and communication
Low in demand and control
Child Consequences
Poor adolescent school performance
More aggressive and immature
Less responsible and independent

16. Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles: Authoritative
Parenting Characteristics
High in warmth and communication
High in demand and control
Child Consequences
Higher self-esteem, independence, and altruism
More parental compliance
Self-confident and achievement-oriented
Better school performance
Most consistently positive outcomes

17. Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles: Uninvolved
Parenting Characteristics
Low in levels of demand and control
Low in levels of warmth and communication
Child Consequences
Disturbances in social relationships
More impulsive and antisocial in adolescence
Less competent with peers
Much less achievement-oriented in school
Maccoby and Martin add the Uninvolved Type
Most consistently negative outcomes

18. Figure 8.5 Parenting Style and Grades
Making the grade
Grades varied with parenting style in Steinberg and Dombusch’s Study. Can you think of a way to explain this?

19. Parenting Patterns

20. Family Relationships and Structure Effects of Parenting Styles: Spanking
Most parents believe spanking effective if used sparingly
Short-term effects
Long-term effects
Premack’s principle
ST: works; temporarily reduces undesirable behavior
LT: models infliction of pain; associates spanking parents with physical pain; leads to family climate of emotional rejection; higher levels of aggression between children who are spanked and those who are not
Premack’s principle: Any high-frequency activity can be used as a reinforcer for any lower-frequency activity.

21. Is “authoritative” always best?
Authoritative pattern
Positive outcomes seen in all ethnic groups
More common in white families and middle class
Usually more common among intact families
Least common among Asian Americans
See Figure 8.4, page 206.
Teenagers raised in and authoritative household showed more self-reliance and less delinquency in whites and Hispanics.
Strong connections between authoritarian pattern and school performance and social competence appear for Asian Americans and African Americans.

22. Figure 8.6 Social Class, Ethnicity, and Parenting Style
Key variables may be parenting goals rather than ethnicity
Parenting style may be related to style which enhances child’s potential for success

23. Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles
Authoritarian pattern in Asian American families
High levels of school achievement in Asian American children
Economic success
Maintenance of ethnic identity

24. Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles
Authoritarian pattern in African American families
Enhances children’s potential for self-control and success
Prepares children to deal with social forces such as racism that impede social success
Reduces use of substance abuse
More common among poor families

25. ? ?
Questions To Ponder
What kind of parenting style was used to raise you? What effects did it have on your development? What style will you use as a parent?

26. Family Relationships and Structure
Family Structure: Diversity in Two-Parent and Single-Parent Families
Only 70% of U.S. children lived with both biological parents in 2007.
Many children from two-parent families have experienced single-parenting.
2% of U.S. children live with custodial grandparents.

27. Ethnicity and U.S. Family Types
Estimate of 3 family types among white, African American, Asian American, Native American, and Hispanic American children in U.S.
Figure Ethnicity and Family Structure

28. Family Structure and Ethnicity Single Parents
Family Structure: Single-Parent Families
More common among African Americans and Native Americans
Single mothers are less likely to marry.
Grandparents and other relatives traditionally help support single mothers.
Some single mothers are financially secure.
More common among African Americans and Native Americans
These groups have higher rates of births to single mothers
Single mothers are less likely to marry
Grandparents and other relatives traditionally help support single mothers
Look at Figure 8.5
Look at Figure 8.6

29. Family Relationships and Structure Other Types of Family Structures
Custodial Grandparents
Aging and parenting stress cause anxiety and depression.
Gay and Lesbian Parents
No expressed social or cognitive developmental differences between the children of gay and lesbian parents and the children of heterosexual couples.
Concerns about children’s sex-role identity and orientation are not supported by research

30. Family Relationships and Structure Divorce: Impact on Children
Declines in school performance
More aggressive, defiant, or depressed behaviors
Higher incidence of adolescent criminal behavior
Step-children differences
Higher risk of mental problems in adulthood
Lack financial and emotional support needed for success in college
Struggle with fears of intimacy in relationships
More likely to divorce themselves
Short term: effects are more severe for boys
Children in step-parent families have higher rates of delinquency, more behavior problems, and lower grades
Divorce
Creates financial hardships.
Transitions create upheaval lasting several years.
Parenting patterns shifts away from authoritative.
Extended families can mitigate some difficulties with divorce.

31. Peer Relationships Kinds of Play
Successful play associated with development of social skills
Solitary play
Parallel play
Cooperative play
Solitary play
All ages of children
Parallel play
14 – 18 months
Cooperative play
3 – 4 years old

32. Can you define two types of aggression?
Aggression: Behavior intended to hurt another or object
Instrumental
Hostile
Initial aggression in 2 – 3-year-olds
Hitting and throwing things
Instrumental – intended to obtain something a child wants
Older children
Hostile aggression – used to hurt another or to gain advantage
With good verbal skills comes verbal aggression
Physical aggression declines as dominance hierarchies emerge
Dominance hierarchies – arrangements of children into pecking order of leaders and followers.

33. Prosocial Behavior and Friendships
Prosocial behavior: Actions that benefit or help another person
Development of prosocial behavior increases during preschool years.
Parental influences affect children’s empathy.
Development of Prosocial Behavior
Evident at 2 – 3 years of age
Some behaviors increase with age
Children who show altruistic behaviors are popular with peers
Parental Influences
Loving and warm family climate
Explain consequences clearly to children
Provide prosocial attributions – positive statements about the underlying cause for helpful behavior