1. Anatomy and Physiology
Part 2

2. Skeletal System Made up of organs that are called bones
Adults have 206 bones
Functions of bones
Framework: support body’s muscle, fat and skin
Protection: surround vital organs to protect them
Levers
Attach to muscles to help provide movement
Produce Blood Cells
Produce red and white blood cells and platelets
Storage
Store most of bodies calcium supply

3. Joints Area where 2 or more bones join together
Ligaments: connective tissue bands that hold long bones together
Synovial
Freely moving
Ball-and-socket joints of the shoulder and hip
Hinge joints of the elbow and knee
Amphiarthrosis
Slightly moveable
Ribs to the thoracic vertebrae
Synarthrosis
Immovable
Suture joints of the cranium

4. Diseases and Abnormal Conditions
Arthritis
Group of diseases involving an inflammation of the joints
Osteoarthritis
Chronic disease that occurs with aging
Symptoms: Joint pain, stiffness, aching, limited ROM
Treatment: Rest, heat/cold, aspirin, anti-inflammatory meds, steroids
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Chronic inflammatory disease of connective tissues and joints
3x more common in women and usually begins around 35-45
Progressive attacks cause scar tissue formation and atrophy of bone and muscle tissue
Treatment: Rest and prescribed exercise
Anti-inflammatory medications: aspirin, steroids
Surgery, or arthroplasty (replace damaged joints)

5. Fractures Crack in the bone
Greenstick: bone is bent and splits cuasing a crack or incomplete break
Simple: complete break with no damage to the skin
Compound: break in bone that ruptures through skin; increased chance of infection
Impacted: broken bone ends jam into each other

6. Fractures
Comminuted: bone fragments or splinters into more than 2 pieces
Spiral: severe twisting of a bone causes one or more breaks
Stress: Hairline fracture of a bone that has been under repeated stress

7. Dislocation and Sprains
Bone is forcibly displaced from a joint
Frequently occurs in shoulders, fingers and hips
Treatment: reduced and immobilized with splint, traction, or cast
Sprain
Twisting action tears ligaments at a joint
Common sites are wrist and ankle
Symptoms: pain, swelling, discoloration, limited movement
Treatment: rest and elevation; immobilization or splinting, cold applications

8. Osteomyelitis
Inflammation of bone usually caused by pathogenic organism
Pathogen causes formation of abscess with bone and accumulation of pus
Symptoms: pain at site, swelling, chills, fever
Treatment: Antibiotics for infection

9. Osteoporosis Metabolic disorder that causes softening of the bones
Deficiency of hormones (estrogen)
Prolonged lack of calcium in diet
Sedentary lifestyle
Loss of calcium and phosphate causes bones to become porous, brittle, and prone to fractures, and spinal compression fractures
Bone density tests can lead to early detection
Treatment
Increase calcium and Vit D
Exercise
Medications
Estrogen replacement

10. Muscular System Over 600 muscles make up the muscular system
Muscles are made of bundles of muscle fibers that are held together by connective tissue
Characteristics of Muscles:
Excitability or irritability—ability to respond to stimulus such as a nerve impulse
Contractibility—when muscle fibers are stimulated by nerves, they contract or become short and thick causing movement
Extensibility—ability to be stretched
Elasticity—allows muscle to return to its original shape after it has contracted or stretched3

11. Types of muscle Cardiac Viseral or Smooth Skeletal
Forms the walls of the heart, contract to circulate blood
Involuntary—functions without thought or control
Viseral or Smooth
Found in internal organs of the body: digestive system, respiratory system, blood vessels or eyes
Contract to cause movement in these systems
Involuntary
Skeletal
Attach to bones and cause body movements
Voluntary

12. Functions Attach to bones to provide voluntary movement
Produce heat or energy
Help maintain posture by holding the body erect
Protects internal organs

13. Diseases and Conditions
Muscular Dystrophy
Chronic progressive muscle atrophy
Appears in early childhood
Many types result in total disability and early death
Physical therapy is used to slow progress of the disease
Fibromyalgia
Chronic widespread pain in specific muscle sites
Symptoms: muscle stiffness, numbness/tingling, fatigue, headaches, depression
Stress, weather and poor physical fitness affect the condition
Treatment includes physical therapy, massage, exercise, stress reduction, pain medication and muscle relaxors

14. Strains, Spasms, Cramps Strain Spasms or Cramps
Overstretching or injury to a muscle or tendon
Frequent sites include back, arms, and legs causing swelling, pain and limited movement
Usually caused by prolonged or sudden muscle exertion
Treatment RICE
Spasms or Cramps
Sudden, painful, involuntary contractions of muscles
May result in overexertion, low electrolyte levels, or poor circulation
Gentle pressure and stretching can help relieve pain

15. Central Nervous System
Consists of:
Brain
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
Meninges
Pia Matter

16. Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic System
Autonomic System
Cranial and Spinal nerves
Two divisions: Sympathetic and parasympathetic
Responsible for special senses (sight, hearing, taste, and smell as well as touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. Sends out the impulses for voluntary and involuntary muscle control
Helps maintain balance in the involuntary functions of the body, but allows the body to react in times of an emergency
Spinal nerves carry messages to and from the spinal cord
Systems work together to maintain balance

17. Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Acts in times of emergency “fight or flight”
Counteracts actions of the sympathetic system after an emergency
Prepares the body to act
Slows heart rate and respirations
Increases heart rate and respirations
Lowers blood pressure
Slows activity in the digestive system
Increases activity in the digestive tract
Raises blood pressure

18. Conditions of the NS Cerebral Palsy Epilepsy
Disturbance in voluntary muscle action
Caused by brain damage—usually lack of oxygen at birth
Symptoms: Exaggerated reflexes, tense muscles, spasms, speech impairment, in some cases mental retardation
Treatment: No cure. PT, OT, speech therapy, muscle relaxants, braces, surgery for contractures
Epilepsy
Brain disorder associated with abnormal impulses in neurons of the brain
Causes: brain injury, birth trauma, tumors, infections
Absent or petit mal seizures
Tonic-Clonic or grand mal
Anticonvulsant medicaiton

19. Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)/Stroke
Blood flow to the brain is impaired resulting in lack of oxygen and destruction of the brain
Causes: cerebral hemorrhage (hypertension, aneurysm); occlusion or blockage (thrombous, atherosclerosis)
Risk Factors:
Smoking, high fat diet, obesity, and sedentary lifestyle
Symptoms vary depending on area and amount of brain tissue damaged
Care during the first 3 hours is important and can prevent brain damage
Treatment after is directed at adapting to symptoms present

20. Circulatory System AKA Cardiovascular system
Consists of heart, blood vessels, and blood
Heart:
Transports oxygen and nutrients to body cells and transports CO2 away from cells
Muscular organ, weights less than 1 pound, size of fist
3 layers of tissue form the heart
Endocardium
Myocardium
Pericardium

21. Circulatory System AKA Cardiovascular system
Consists of heart, blood vessels, and blood
Heart:
Transports oxygen and nutrients to body cells and transports CO2 away from cells
Muscular organ, weights less than 1 pound, size of fist
3 layers of tissue form the heart
Endocardium
Myocardium
Pericardium

22. Heart
Septum: Separates right and left sides, prevents blood moving between sides
Chambers: 4 chambers
Upper 2 Atrias, Lower 2 Ventricles
Valves:
One way chambers to keep blood flowing in the proper direction
Tricuspid—between RA and RV
Bicuspid/Mitral valve—between LA and LV
Pulmonary Valve—between RV and Pulmonary Artery
Aortic Valve—between LV and Aorta

23. Heart Aorta: Vena Cava Pulmonary Arteries Pulmonary Veins
Largest artery in the body
Vena Cava
Superior
Inferior
Pulmonary Arteries
Left and Right
Pulmonary Veins
Left and right
Apex: Lowest part of the heart

24. Blood Vessels Arteries Capillaries Veins
Carry blood away from the heart
Arterioles: Smallest branches of arteries
Muscular and elastic to receive blood pumped from the heart
Capillaries
Thin walls that contain only 1 layer of cells
Located close to almost every cell in the body
Allow oxygen to pass through to cells and wastes to enter
Veins
Carries blood back to the heart
Thin with less muscle tissue

25. Blood Contains cells, often called tissue
About 4-6 quarts in average adult
Circulates continually transporting:
oxygen to lungs and body cells
CO2 from body cells to lungs
Nutrients from digestive tract to cells
Metabolic wastes from cells to organs of excretion
Heat produced by various body parts
Hormones produced by endocrine glands

26. Parts of Blood Plasma RBC—4.5-5.5 million per cc
Liquid portion of blood
Made up of about 90% water
RBC— million per cc
Produced in bone marrow
Carry oxygen and CO2
WBC—5,000-9,000 per cc
Formed in bone marrow
Fight infection
Thrombocytes/Platelets
Important in clotting process

27. Diseases/Conditions Anemia Aneurysm Inadequate number of RBC
Symptoms: pale, fatigue, dyspnea, rapid HR
Causes: blood loss, iron deficiency
Treatment: Iron supplements and increasing foods rich in iron (leafy greens)
Aneurysm
Ballooning out or saclike formation on wall of artery
Caused by disease, congenital defects
Symptoms: pain and pressure or none
If aneurysm ruptures (stroke) can cause death
Treatment: surgical removal of damaged areas, graft or new vessel

28. Hypertension High Blood Pressure Risk Factors: Treatment
Systolic 140/150
Diastolic < 90
Risk Factors:
Family history
Race
Obesity
Stress
Smoking
Aging
Diet
Treatment
Antihypertensive medication
Getting rid of risk factors

29. Myocardial Infarction/Heart attack
Blockage cuts off blood supply to the heart
Affected tissues die (Infarct)
Symptoms:
Angina—crushing pain that radiates to arm and jaw
Pressure in chest
Perspiration and cold, clammy skin
Dyspnea
Change in blood pressure
Treatment:
CPR if heart stops
Thrombolytic drug, vasodilators, Digoxin ( S and S)
LTC:
Control BP, Avoid tobacco and stress, exercise, weight control, diet

30. Lymphatic System
Consists of lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes and lymph tissue
Works with circulatory system to remove wastes and excessive fluid from tissue
Lymph tissue—tonsils, spleen, thymus
Tonsillitis
Inflammation or infection of tonsils
Removal of tonsils in chronic cases
ATB, fluids, and rest

31. Respiratory System Consists of lungs and air passages
Responsible for taking in oxygen and removing carbon dioxide.
Body has a 4-6 minute oxygen supply
Parts include: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, alveoli and lungs
Works with circulatory system

32. Asthma
Respiratory disorder usually caused by sensitivity to an allergen (dust, pollen, animals, food, meds)
Symptoms: Bronchospasms narrow openings of bronchioles, mucus production increases, and edema develops in the mucosal lining
Dyspnea, wheezing, coughing, tightness in chest
Treatment: bronchodilators to enlarge the bronchioles, oxygen, epinephrine and anti inflammatory medication
Elimination of or desensitization to allergens causing the problem

33. Emphysema Noninfectious chronic respiratory condition
Occurs when the walls of the alveoli deteriorate and lose their elasticity
CO2 remains trapped in the alveoli, poor exchange of gases
Most common causes are heavy smoking and prolonged exposure to air pollutants
Symptoms: Dyspnea, feeling of suffocation, barrel chest, chronic cough, cyanosis, rapid respirations
Treatment: Avoid smoking, bronchodilators, breathing exercises, treatment of infections, O2
No cure—eventually leads to death

34. COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Chronic lung disease that results in obstruction of the airways
Smoking is the primary cause but allergens and chronic respiratory infections are also factors
Chronic asthma, Chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and tuberculosis can lead to COPD
Treatment: bronchodilators, mucolytics, cough meds
Prognosis is poor because damage to the lungs causes deterioration of pulmonary function leading to respiratory failure and death

35. Influenza/Flu
Highly contagious viral infection of the upper respiratory system with sudden onset
Symptoms: Chills and fever, cough, sore throat, runny nose, muscle pain and fatigue
Treatment: Bed rest and fluids, analgesics for pain and antipyretics for fever
Immunization with vaccine
Vaccine is developed each year to immunize against the most common viruses identified

36. Digestive System
Responsible for the physical and chemical breakdown of food so it can be taken into the bloodstream and used by body cells and tissues
Includes that alimentary canal and accessory organs
Alimentary canal
Pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus
Accessory organs
Salivary glands, tongue, teeth, liver and pancreas

37. Oral Cavity
Mouth
Teeth
Tongue
Hard Palate
Soft Palate
Salivary Glands

38. Oral Passageway Pharynx--Throat Esophagus
Tube that carries air and food
Air is carried to the trachea
Food is carried to the esophagus
When food is swallowed a muscle action causes the epiglottis to cover the larynx preventing the food from entering the respiratory tract
Esophagus
Muscular tube that receives food from the pharynx and carries it to the stomach
Uses peristalsis to move the food forward

39. Oral Passageway Stomach Gastric Juices
Receives food from the esophagus
Mucous membrane lining contains folds (rugae)
Food remains in stomach for about 2-4 hours
Gastric Juices
Produced by glands in the stomach and converts food into semifluid material (chyme)
Juices contain hydrochloric acid
Kills bacteria
Facilitates in absorption
Activates enzymes

40. Small Intestine 20 ft long Receives chyme from stomach
Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
Functions: complete digestion, absorb products of digestion into the blood stream for use by body cells
Intestinal Juices and accessory parts
Bile: Liquid that enters the small intestine from the liver and gallbladder and emulsifies fats
Pancreatic juice: enters small intestine from pancreas; contains different enzymes that break down sugars, proteins and fats

41. Large Intestine Functions: Sections:
Absorption of water and any remaining nutrients
Storage of indigestible materials before they are eliminated from the body
Transportation of waste products
Sections:
Cecum
Colon
Rectum