3. American Aristocracy  “Some of their fellow-citizens acquired a power over the rest which might truly have been called aristocratic, if it had been capable of invariable transmission from father to son.” — Alexis de Toqueville (1840, 4)  INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

4. PUBLIC OFFICIALS George Bush, Sr. 41 st President Jeff Sessions U.S. Senator Hilary Clinton U.S. Secretary of State Jan Brewer Governor of Arizona

5. Public Officials  Gained interest because their occupation affects the public at the national, state, and/or local level  Recognized for knowledge, leadership skills, and charisma  INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

6. PUBLIC FIGURES Ellen Pompeo T.V. Actress Kobe Bryant Professional Basketball Player Beyonce Knowles Singer Brad Pitt Actor

7. Public Figures  Gained interest because their occupation interests the public  “The glamorous impersonates the ordinary.” — Laura Mulvey (1975, 205)  INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

9. What is Defamation?  False & derogatory statements that injure reputation  Slander & libel  Tortus = twisted  INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

11. The Twists  The First Amendment vs. English common law  Private Individuals v. Public Figures/Officials  INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

13. English Common Law Tradition  1275 statute outlawing slander between King & people  Penance vs. temporal grievance  Court of Star Chamber & birth of libel law  Importance of reputation in English society — INTRO.  HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

15. Defamation in the United States  “Congress shall make no law... abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press.”  The Sedition Act of 1798  Common law remained intact — INTRO.  HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

17. Officials Become Public  Prior to 1896—no press space in White House  Appearance of mass-circulation press  Theodore Roosevelt holds press conferences  After Watergate—shift in public interest — INTRO.  HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

19. Pres. Kennedy as a Public Official  The masquerade of Camelot in the 1960’s  Post-Watergate—reality of Kennedy’s private life — INTRO.  HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

22. Emergence of Public Figures  The Hollywood Studio Machine  The growth of tabloids — INTRO.  HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

26. New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)  The facts of the case  Common law v.s. the First Amendment  Public officials & actual malice  A new American standard — INTRO. — HISTORY  CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

27. Time, Inc. v. Hill (1967)  Facts of the case  Not a libel suit  A matter of public interest  Hill as a public figure — INTRO. — HISTORY  CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

28. Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts (1967)  Facts of the case  Butts as a public figure  Application of actual malice standard — INTRO. — HISTORY  CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

29. Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. (1974)  Facts of the case  Gertz as a private citizen  Actual malice standard inapplicable  Treatment decided by the states — INTRO. — HISTORY  CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

30. Philadelphia Newspapers, Inc. v. Hepps (1987)  Facts of the case  Common law and the burden of proof  The most constitutionally protected entity  Private citizens bear the burden — INTRO. — HISTORY  CASES — ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

32. American Defamation Law & the Federal System  Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co. (1990) — a framework  Burnett v. National Enquirer (1981) — kinds of malice  The categories of public officials and public figures  Differences in degree of fault — INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES  ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

34. The Internet  Internet intermediaries  Communications Decency Act (1996)  Widespread anonymity; 55% of bloggers use pseudonyms.  An advanced version of a classical forum — INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES  ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

36. Remedies & Damages  Monetary awards  Declaratory relief  Self-Help  Right-of-Response statutes  Injunctive relief  Retraction — INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES  ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

38. Five Key Issues 1.First Amendment vs. common law 2.Public vs. private citizens 3.Differences between states 4.Defamation and the internet 5.Insufficiency of remedies — INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES  ISSUES — SOLUTIONS

40. Proposed Solution to Issue One: The First Amendment vs. Common Law  Support New York Times interpretation of First Amendment & common law  No actual malice requirement in declaratory relief claims — INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES  SOLUTIONS

41. Proposed Solution to Issue Two: Public vs. Private Distinction  Categories needed  Recommend the courts redefine the major categories based on today’s social constructs — INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES  SOLUTIONS

42. Thoughts on Issue Three: Differences Between States  Importance of enabling each state to craft its own defamation law  The national framework holds the law in place — INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES  SOLUTIONS

43. Proposed Solution to Issue Four: Defamation & the Internet  Support Solove’s proposal for exhausting informal mechanisms when the defendant is not a repeat offender or part of a broadcast or print-media publication — INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES  SOLUTIONS

44. Proposed Solutions to Issue Five: Insufficiency of Remedies  Support a loser-pay-all system  Believe declaratory relief issued in the same publication the defamatory statement was released as the most sufficient remedy — INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES  SOLUTIONS

46. Final Thoughts  The twist in defamation law cannot be fully straightened because of its very nature, but perhaps, it can be slightly untwisted with new revision of the old law. — INTRO. — HISTORY — CASES — ISSUES  SOLUTIONS

47. Major Sources  Collins, Matthew. 2005. The Law of Defamation and the Internet. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, INC.  Curtis Publishing Company v Butts, 388 US 130 (1967) (accessed 20 September 2009).  Gertz v. Robert Welch, INC., 418 US 323 (1974) (accessed 19 September 2009).  Kupferman, Theodore R. ed. 1990. Defamation: Libel and Slander: Readings from Communication and the Law, I. Westport, Connecticut: Meckler Corporation.  Milo, Dario. 2008. Defamation and Freedom of Speech. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.  Mulvey, Laura. 1975. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” In The Routledge Critical and Cultural Theory Reader. 2008. Eds. Neil Badmington and Julia Thomas. New York, N.Y.: Routledge. 202-212.  New York Times Company v. Sullivan, 376 US 254 (1964) (accessed 20 September 2009).  Philadelphia Newspapers, INC v. Hepps, 475 US 767 (1987) (accessed 19 September 2009).

48. Major Sources  Schwartz, Victor E., Kathryn Kelly, and David F. Partlett. 2005. Prosser, Wade, and Schwartz’s Torts: Eleventh Edition. New York, N.Y.: Foundation Press.  Siegel, Paul. 2008. Communication Law in America: Second Edition. New York, N.Y.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.  Smolla, Rodney A. 1986. Suing the Press. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, INC.  Solove, Daniel J. 2007. The Future of Reputation. New Haven, C.T.: Yale University Press.  Time, Inc. v. Hill, 385 U.S. 374 (1967) (accessed 19 September 2009).  Tocqueville, Alexis de. 1840. “Equality of Condition.” In Classic Readings in American Politics: 3rd Edition. 1999. Eds. Pietro S. Nivola and David H. Rosenbloom. New York, N.Y.: Worth Publishers INC. 3-8.

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