1. Memory Chapter 8 Unit 7 ~ Part 1
AP Psychology ~ Ms. Justice

2. BIG IDEAS Studying Memory: Information-Processing Models
Encoding: Getting Information In
Storage: Retaining Information
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Forgetting
Memory Construction
Improving Memory

3. The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information.

4. 1: How do psychologists describe the human memory system?

5. Information Processing Models
Encoding – getting information into the brain
Storage – retaining information
Retrieval – getting information back out
Computers process information in a speedy, sequential process; the human brain is slower but does many things at once
Preview Question 1: How do psychologists describe the human memory system?
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
Monitor
(Retrieval)

6. Information Processing
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes:
a) sensory memory – an immediate recording of
information
b) short-term memory – activated memory that
holds a few items briefly (info. is either stored
or forgotten)
c) long-term memory – relatively permanent and
limitless storehouse of the memory system

7. Modifications to the Three-Stage Model
Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.
Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and process it into our working memory – short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of information.

8. 2: What information do we encode automatically
2: What information do we encode automatically? What information do we encode effortfully, and how does the distribution of practice influence retention?

9. Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed.
However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.
Preview Question 2: What information do we encode automatically? What information do we encode effortfully, and how does the distribution of practice influence retention?

10. Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following:
Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.
Time: We unintentionally note the time that events take place in a day.
Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

11. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.
Effortful Processing
Committing novel (new) information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook.
Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Figure 8.4, page 331

12. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
Rehearsal
Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ
The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2.

13. Memory Effects
Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time.
Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

14. 3: What effortful processing methods aid in forming memories?

15. What We Encode Semantic encoding - encoding by meaning
Visual encoding - encoding by images
Acoustic encoding - encoding by sounds
Preview Question 3:What effortful processing methods aid in forming memories?

16. memory researcher Wayne Wickelgren
Encoding Meaning
Semantic encoding, or processing the meaning of information by associating it with what we already know (or imagine), results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.
“The time you spend thinking about material you are reading and relating it to previously stored material is about the most useful thing you can do in learning any new subject matter.”
memory researcher Wayne Wickelgren

17. Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.
Showing adverse effects of meth use
in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

18. Mnemonics
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in aiding memory.

19. Organizing Information for Encoding
Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories.
Chunking
Hierarchies

20. Chunking 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below.
If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better

21. Chunking F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks
The capacity of the working memory may be increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks

22. Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

23. Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.

24. 4: What is sensory memory?

25. Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval

26. The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long

27. 5: What are the duration and capacity of short-term and long-term memory?

28. Working Memory
George Miller’s research suggested that working memory has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds).

29. The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.
Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal.
CHJ
MKT
HIJ
100 97 94 …
CH??
The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.

30. Test Your Working Memory!
You should be able to
recall 7±2 numbers.
Ready?
Short Term Memory Demonstration

31. Long-Term Memory Essentially unlimited capacity store.
R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

32. Memory Stores Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-Term Memory
Encoding
Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.25 sec.
20 sec.
Years

33. 6: How does the brain store our memories?

34. Storing Memories in the Brain
Loftus and Loftus (1980) analyzed vivid “memories” triggered by brain stimulation during surgery: they found that what seemed at first to be flashbacks, actually appeared to be invented, not relived
Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that memories do not reside in single, specific spots: even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of a maze.
Preview Question 6: How does the brain store our memories?

35. Synaptic Changes Experience modifies the brain’s neural networks
Increased activity in a neural pathway strengthens neural interconnections
When learning occurs, synapses become more efficient at transmitting signals
The sending neuron needs less prompting to release its neurotransmitter, and the receiving neuron’s receptor sites may increase

36. Synaptic Changes
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after learning (Lynch, 2002).
Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov Courtesy of Dominique Muller

37. Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events
Scott Barbour/ Getty Images

38. Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.
Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows.
Fig , p. 343

39. Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery to alleviate epilepsy, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia.
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery

40. Implicit Memory HM is unable to make new memories that are
declarative (explicit), but he can form new
memories that are procedural (implicit).
HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game.

41. 7: How do we get information out of memory?

42. Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.
Preview Question7: How do we get information out of memory?
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Even if Oprah and Brad hadn’t become famous, their high school classmates would likely still recognize their yearbook photos.

43. Measures of Memory
In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.)
Name the capital of France.
Brussels
Rome
London
Paris

44. Measures of Memory
In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.)
The capital of France is ______.

45. Measures of Memory
In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time.
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite …
Silk
Frog
Ring
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite …
Silk
Frog
Ring
Original
Trials
Relearning
Trials
1 day later
Saving
X 100
Original
Trials 10 5
X 100 10
It took 10 trials
to learn this list
It took 5 trials
to learn the list
50%

46. Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
hose
Fire Truck
fire
smoke
truck
heat
red

47. Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

48. 8: How do external contexts and internal emotions influence memory retrieval?

49. Context Effects
Putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval.
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Preview Question 8: How do external contexts and internal emotions influence memory retrieval?
Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers

50. Moods and Memories
We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood (state-dependent memory). Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues. Our memories are mood-congruent.
Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures

51. 9: Why do we forget?

52. Forgetting
Forgetting is an inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
Preview Question 9: Why do we forget?

53. We cannot remember what we do not encode.
Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we do not encode.

54. Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay.
Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay.
Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining over 50 years.

55. Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed.
Tip-of-the-tongue is a retrieval failure phenomenon Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin).

56. Proactive Interference
When something you learned earlier disrupts your recall of something you experience later.

57. Retroactive Interference
When new information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier.
Sleep prevents retroactive interference.
Therefore, it leads to better recall.

58. Motivated Forgetting
Repression: Freud suggested that we have a defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
**An increasing number of memory researchers think this rarely, if ever, occurs.
Sigmund Freud

59. Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.
We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.
Fig. 8.25, p. 355

60. 10: How do misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction? How real-seeming are false memories?

61. Memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
Preview Question 10: How do misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction? How real-seeming are false memories?

62. Misinformation and Imagination Effects
Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event.
Depiction of the actual accident.

63. Misinformation
Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

64. Memory Construction
A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass?
Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).
Depiction of the actual accident.

65. Source Amnesia
Source Amnesia: Attributing an event that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined to the wrong source (misattribution). ?

66. Children’s Eyewitness Recall
Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if leading questions are posed. However, if cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their recall increases. In cases of sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower percentage of abuse.

67. 11: What is the controversy related to claims of repressed and recovered memories?

68. Constructed Memories
Elizabeth Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories.
Don Shrubshell

69. Consensus on Childhood Abuse
Leading psychological associations of the world agree
on the following concerning childhood sexual abuse:
Injustice happens.
Incest and other sexual abuse happens.
People may forget.
Recovered memories are commonplace.
Recovered memories under hypnosis or drugs are unreliable.
Memories of things happening before 3 years of age are unreliable.
Memories, whether real or false, are emotionally upsetting.
p. 362

70. 12: How can an understanding of memory contribute to more effective study techniques?

71. Improving Memory Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material.
Make material personally meaningful.
*mindlessly repeating someone else’s words
while taking notes is relatively ineffective*
Use mnemonic devices:
associate with something already stored
make up a story
chunk — acronyms
Preview Question 12: How can an understanding of memory contribute to more effective study techniques?

72. Improving Memory
Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and mood.
Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation.
Minimize interference:
Test your own knowledge.
Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know.