1. Seminar Topic on Content Analysis
Venkatesha
Research Scholar
Under the Guidance
Dr. Sarasvathy. P
Senior Assistant Librarian
Department of Library and Information Science

2. Introduction
Content analysis is a set of procedures for collecting and organizing information in a standardized format that allows analysts to make inferences about the characteristics and meaning of written and other recorded material.
Content analysis is a summarizing, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the scientific method and is not limited as to the types of variables that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented.

3. Definitions
According to Dr. Farooq Joubish, content analysis is considered a scholarly methodology in the humanities by which texts are studied as to authorship, authenticity, or meaning.
According to Berelson “Content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication”.

4. Use of Content Analysis
Detect the existence of ideas, Concepts and truth hidden in the texts.
Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group or institution.
Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications.
Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups.

5. History of Content Analysis
content analysis was already an often utilized research method by the 1940's. Although initially limited to studies that examined texts for the frequency of the occurrence of identified terms.
the mid-1950's researchers were already starting to consider the need for more sophisticated methods of analysis.
focusing on concepts rather than simply words, and on semantic relationships rather than just presence (de Sola Pool 1959). 
content analysis now is also utilized to explore mental models, and their linguistic, affective, cognitive, social, cultural and historical significance.

6. Types of Content Analysis
Conceptual Analysis :
A concept is chosen for examination, and the analysis involves quantifying and tallying its presence. The focus here is on looking at the occurrence of selected terms within a text.
2. Relational Analysis :
It begins with the act of identifying concepts present in a given text or set to texts and seeks to go beyond presence by exploring the relations between the concepts identified.

7. Issues of Reliability & Validity
Stability : the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way over a period of time.
Reproducibility : tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in the same way.
Accuracy : the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a standard or norm statistically.
The validity of categories in implicit concept analysis, in particular, is achieved by utilizing multiple classifiers to arrive at an agreed upon definition of the category.

8. Advantages of Content Analysis
Looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence gets at the central aspect of social interaction.
Can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations.
Can provide valuable historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of texts.
Allows closeness to text which can alternate between specific categories and relationships and also statistically analyzes the coded form of the text.
Cont…….

9. Cont…….
can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert systems.
is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions.
provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use.
when done well, is considered as a relatively "exact" research method.

10. Disadvantages of Content Analysis
Can be extremely time consuming.
Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to attain a higher level of interpretation.
Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts.
Tends too often to simply consist of word counts.
Can be difficult to automate or computerize.
Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of things after the text is produced.

11. Conclusion
The method can be costly in that formulating categories that can be reliably coded, pre- paring coding instructions, and training and supervising coders can all be time consuming. Additionally, complex coding schemes, which usu- ally yield the most interesting findings, may produce the least reliable results because they entail a substantial element of coder judgment. Content analysis, therefore, requires rigorous reliability and validity checks if its results are to withstand critical scrutiny.

12. References
Berelson, Bernard.  Content Analysis in Communication Research. New York: Free Press, 1952.
Budd, Richard. Content Analysis of Communications. New York: Macmillan Company, 1967.
Busha, Charles H. and Stephen P. Harter.  Research Methods in Librarianship: Techniques and Int
de Sola Pool, Ithiel. Trends in Content Analysis. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1959.erpretation. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

13. Carley, Kathleen. "Content Analysis. " In R. E. Asher (Ed
Carley, Kathleen. "Content Analysis." In R.E. Asher (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Edinburgh: Pergamon Press, 1990.
Weber, Robert Philip. Basic Content Analysis, Second Edition. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1990.

14. Thank you