1. The Use of Child Soldiers in Contemporary Conflicts

2. Child Soldiers in Active Combat Reasons for recruitment: Reasons for recruitment: –Uniquely vulnerable –Easily trained and intimidated –Cheap and abundant labour force –Ability to absorb new indentities –War ‘games’ –Elevated levels of brutality –Reluctance of troops to attack children –End of Cold War resulted in abundance of small, light weapons that are easily used and carried by children

3. Recruitment Kidnapping and abduction Kidnapping and abduction –Refugee camps –From schools –From streets / homeless –Child soldiers re-recruited into other conflicts Enticements offered by rebel groups: Enticements offered by rebel groups: –Education –Food –Security –Parents ‘volunteer’ children in exchange for food/ security –Familial environment –Sense of power –Revenge

4. 300,000 children associated with armed combat 300,000 children associated with armed combat –10% are in direct combat Northern Uganda Northern Uganda –8,000 children abducted between 2002 – 2003 DRC DRC –Approx 90% of armed forces under 18 years of age Burma/ Myanmar Burma/ Myanmar –70,000 child soldiers within National Army –Those as young as 12 routinely sent into battle Sudan Sudan –Militias supported by the government are currently using 20,000 child soldiers within their ranks. (Becker, 2007) (Becker, 2007)

5. Duties of Child Combatants Human shields Human shields Mine detectors Mine detectors Initial wave of attackers / ‘cannon fodder’ Initial wave of attackers / ‘cannon fodder’ Guerilla warfare Guerilla warfare Killings Killings Torture Torture Execution of colleagues attempting to escape Execution of colleagues attempting to escape Forced rape Forced rape Forced destruction of home towns/ villiages to cut social ties Forced destruction of home towns/ villiages to cut social ties Mutilation Mutilation

6. Reconciliation Reintegration into community Reintegration into community –Re-establishing social structures –Education Dealing with stigmatisation Dealing with stigmatisation –Fear –Pregnancy –Mutilation –Knowledge of actions during conflict

7. Local approaches v international approaches Local approaches v international approaches –Involving the entire community v isolated rehabilitation centres Importance of local customs and traditions Importance of local customs and traditions –Spirit mediums –Local chiefs –Religious beliefs

8. Mozambique and Liberia as Case Studies Similar Conflicts Similar Conflicts Different outcomes for former child soldiers Different outcomes for former child soldiers Mozambique Mozambique –Community based reconcilitation –Focus on involving family members –Incorporation of cultural beliefs –Government funded programmes –Emphasis on ‘cleansing’ and the future –Successful? Liberia Liberia –National programmes of rehabilitation –Focus on skills and education –Government and EU funded programmes –Emphasis on atonement –Unsuccessful?

9. Conclusion Effect of combat on children Effect of combat on children

10. Bibliography BECKER, J 2007 Children as Weapons of War http://www.hrw.org/legacy/wr2k4/ download/11.pdf BECKER, J 2007 Children as Weapons of War http://www.hrw.org/legacy/wr2k4/ download/11.pdf COLLINS, A (Ed) 2007 Contemporary Security Studies Oxford: Oxford University Press COLLINS, A (Ed) 2007 Contemporary Security Studies Oxford: Oxford University Press HONWANA, A 1999 Negotiating Post-War Identities: Child Soldiers in Mozambique and Angola Codesria Bulletin: http://medico- international.de HONWANA, A 1999 Negotiating Post-War Identities: Child Soldiers in Mozambique and Angola Codesria Bulletin: http://medico- international.de MORAN, M and PITCHER, M 2004 The ‘Basket Case’ and the ‘Poster Child’: Explaining the End of Civil Conflicts in Liberia and Mozambique Third World Quarterly 3 501 – 519 MORAN, M and PITCHER, M 2004 The ‘Basket Case’ and the ‘Poster Child’: Explaining the End of Civil Conflicts in Liberia and Mozambique Third World Quarterly 3 501 – 519 HICK, S 2001 The Political Economy of War-Affected Children Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 575 106- 121 HICK, S 2001 The Political Economy of War-Affected Children Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 575 106- 121 BENNETT, TW. 1998 Using Children in Armed Combat: A Legitimate African Tradition? Institute for Security Studies Monograph 32 BENNETT, TW. 1998 Using Children in Armed Combat: A Legitimate African Tradition? Institute for Security Studies Monograph 32