1. Chapter 12: Adolescent Social & Personality Development
Development Across the Lifespan

2. Identity: Asking "Who Am I?"
During adolescence, self consciousness
takes center stage!
Teens focus on wondering “Who am I?” and “Where do I belong in the world?”
WHY??
Teens begin to become more like adults intellectually
Realize the importance of establishing self in society, and shaping their individuality
Teens become more like adults physically
Dramatic changes during puberty make teens acutely aware of their own bodies

3. Self Concept: Refining Self Perceptions
Self concept broadens during adolescence to include both one's own assessment of who you are and also includes others' views.
The view of self becomes more organized and coherent.
Adolescents can look at themselves in terms of traits and can see multiple aspects of themselves (which can be confusing at first).

4. Self-esteem: Evaluating Oneself
During adolescence, teens become increasingly accurate in understanding who they are (they develop their self concept)
The increase in self-concept does not mean that they like themselves any better (self esteem may still be low)

5. Self-esteem is influenced by several factors:
Gender - especially in early adolescence, girls have lower self-esteem
SES - higher SES leads to more self-esteem (especially in late adolescence when one can buy things of value)

6. (Influences on Self-esteem, continued)
Race - although this finding is now being questioned:
Traditional research says that prejudice is incorporated into minority adolescents' self-concepts
Recent research indicates that African-American adolescents now have same levels of self-esteem as Caucasians (in fact, strong racial identity is related to higher self-esteem levels).

7. (Influences on Self-esteem, continued)
Some developmental psychologists have considered the joint influence of race and gender (“ethgender”)
Using the combination of race and gender together ("ethgender") findings indicate that:
African-American and Hispanic males had highest self-esteem.
Asian and Native American females had lowest levels.

8. Forming an identity during the teen years: crisis or change?
Erik Erikson asserted that adolescents may encounter substantial psychological difficulties in their search for identity (“the adolescent identity crisis”)
Erikson's stage is IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITY-CONFUSION STAGE, where adolescents seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves.

10. (Erikson's IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITY-CONFUSION STAGE, continued)
Those who do not find a suitable identity, tend to follow a dysfunctional path because their sense of self is "diffuse".
There are a lot of social pressures to achieve a secure identity (or at least have clear career or major goals).
Which job track to follow?
Attend college? Which one?
Now, adolescents rely more on friends and peers than adults.

11. (Erikson's IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITY-CONFUSION STAGE, continued)
Erikson suggests that adolescents pursue a psychological moratorium to let go of responsibilities for awhile and explore new roles and possibilities.
For many, this experimentation period is an economic impossibility.
Probably no lasting, negative psychological affects
Some benefits (satisfaction from working, independence, etc.)

12. James Marcia's approach to identity development is an update to Erikson.
 He suggests four categories within which either crisis (a period of identity development in which an adolescent consciously chooses between various alternatives and makes decisions) or commitment (a psychological investment in a course of action or an ideology), takes place.

13. Marcia’s 4 categories of adolescent identity are:
~1) IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT - where adolescents consider and explore various alternatives without commitment
~2) IDENTITY FORECLOSURE - adolescents here did not do adequate personal exploration but made a commitment (usually following others' directives)

14. Marcia’s 4 categories of adolescent identity, continued
~3) IDENTITY DIFFUSION - adolescents explore various options but never commit to one.
~4) MORATORIUM - adolescents explore and do not commit to an option and that creates anxiety and conflict. An identity is usually defined later, after a struggle.

15. “Exploration”

16. Marcia’s 4 categories of adolescent identity, continued
Although adolescents are not stuck in one category, research indicates that identity gels by the age of 18.
For some, identity formation takes place beyond the adolescent period .

17. Identity, Race & Ethnicity
Forming an identity presents a particular challenge for members of ethnic and racial backgrounds because of contradictory societal values
“Society should be color blind, race and ethnic background should not affect opportunity or achievement”
Cultural assimilation model holds that individual cultural identities should be assimilated into a unified culture (“melting pot model”).

18. (Contrasting views of Identity, Race & Ethnicity, continued)
“Racial and ethnic factors should be a central part of teenagers’ identities”
Pluralistic society model suggests that the U.S. society is made up of diverse, coequal cultural groups that should preserve their individual cultural features (“tossed salad model”).
Developed in part because research suggests that the cultural assimilation model denigrates the cultural heritage of minorities and lowers self esteem

19. Increase in Bicultural Identity
On the 2000 census, almost 7 million people described themselves as multiracial.

20. (Contrasting views of Identity, Race & Ethnicity, continued)
Bicultural identity suggests that adolescents can draw from their own culture and integrate themselves into the dominant culture (“the middle ground model”).
Suggests that the teen live as a member of two cultures, and have two cultural identities without having to choose

21. Depression and suicide are two critical psychological
Depression and suicide are two critical psychological difficulties for adolescents.
Some research suggests that about 20-35% of boys, and 25-40% of girls report experiencing depressed moods in the previous 6 months
Although many adolescents experience depressed moods, only a small number experience a major depression, a full-blown psychological disorder in which depression is severe and lingers for long periods.
Roughly 3% of teens

22. Teen Depression, continued…
Depression has several causes, including biological, environmental, and social factors.
Genetic predisposition
Death of loved one
Depressed parent
Unpopular
Few close friends
Experiencing rejection

23. Girls have higher incidences of depression than boys but the cause is not clear.
Are there more stresses on the female gender role?
Is this the results of girls' tendencies to react to stress by turning inward, thus experiencing helplessness and hopelessness?
Hormonal differences are not a factor
Some research suggests that African-Americans and Native Americans also have higher depression rates (same suspected reasons as for girls)

24. Another result of psychological difficulties in adolescence: suicide
Adolescent suicide rates have tripled in the last 30 years - it is the 3rd most common cause of death for teenagers
The current rate is one teenage suicide every 90 minutes.
More girls attempt suicide than boys but more boys succeed.
Males tend to use more violent methods.
There are estimates of as many as 200 attempts for every successful suicide.

26. (adolescent suicide, continued)
 One reason for this increase is the increase in teenage stress - but that is not the whole picture. Other factors include:
Depression
Family conflicts
History of abuse and/or neglect
Drug and alcohol abuse ~

27. Adolescent Difficulties
Most frequently cited reasons for calls to a suicide prevention hotline (1991 study).

28. Some suicides appear to be caused by exposure to the suicide of others…
CLUSTER SUICIDE in which one suicide leads to attempts by others to kill themselves

29. There are some clear warning signs for suicide possibility…
Direct or indirect talk
I wish I were dead”
“Don’t worry, I’ll be out of your hair soon”
School difficulties
missed classes, drop in grades
Writing a will
Changes in eating habits
General depression
Sleep habits, lack of energy, uncommunicative
Dramatic behavior changes
Preoccupation with death
Art, music, conversation

30. Some Main Points About Deterring Adolescent Suicide (Review box in text for more information)
Talk to the person, listen without judging, be supportive!
Talking to the person about specifics will not give the person ideas or encourage the act. This is a myth!
Evaluate the situation—do not leave the person alone if serious danger exists.
Find help! Local & national hotlines are one good source
(800)

31. Relationships During the Teen Years: Family and Friends
Family relationships change during when adolescents begin to question, and sometimes rebel, against their parents' views.
One reason: shift in roles (especially the quest for adulthood and autonomy by people that were considered children until recently!)

32. (Autonomy and relationships during the teen years, continued)
Adolescents are seeking AUTONOMY - independence and a sense of control over their lives.
The increase in autonomy usually occurs gradually throughout adolescence and changes the parent-child relationship from an asymmetrical to a more balanced one (for power and influence).

33. Changing Views of Parents
As teens become older, they feel more like separate individuals, & view their parents in less idealized terms.

34. The Quest for Autonomy & the Effects of Culture
The degree of autonomy achieved varies with families and with cultural expectations
Western societies tend to value individualism
Asian cultures value collectivism
desire for autonomy less pronounced.
Also more feelings of obligation & duty toward family…

35. Family Obligations

36. Differences between teen and parental views of the world: A motivation for autonomy?
The GENERATION GAP, a divide between parents and adolescents in attitudes, values, aspirations, and worldviews, is mostly a myth: adolescents and their parents tend to share the same major values.
On social, political, and religious issues, parents and teens are mostly in synch
The difference in values and attitudes between teens is greater than the difference between parent and teen!

37. What’s the Problem?
Teens view of society’s ills are likely to agree with those of their parents.

38. On the other hand, parent & teen relationships do experience conflict…
In matters of personal taste differences are often great.
Adolescents' argumentativeness and new assertiveness can initially cause conflict in the family but are usually resolved by the end of this stage
Parents even come to see their teens arguments as reasonable and realize teens can be trusted with more freedom

39. Time Spent by Teens with Parents
The amount of time spent with each parent remains remarkably stable across adolescence.
Despite their request for autonomy & independence, most teens have deep love, affection & respect for their parents..

40. Relationships with peers: The importance of belonging
 Peer relationships are more critical to adolescents than any other time of life.
Peers provide an opportunity for social comparison and information.
REFERENCE GROUP, a group of people with whom one compares oneself.
Reference groups present a set of norms or standards, against which adolescents judge their social success.

41. Adolescents are usually part of some identifiable group.
CLIQUES are 2 to 12 people who have frequent interaction;
CROWDS are larger groups where people share some characteristic but often don't interact with each other.
Stereotypes: jocks, brains, druggie, nobody, etc.—strong agreement among teens about the characteristics of each group!
There are strong expectations that people in a particular crowd behave in specific ways. (Is it a self-fulfilling prophesy?)

42. Another aspect of social and personality development during the adolescent years: gender relations
 Gender relations change during the period of adolescence.
SEX CLEAVAGE is characteristic of early adolescence where girls play with girls, boys with boys.
With puberty, there is hormonal and social pressure to interact and eventually most adolescents are in mixed-sex cliques.
At the end of adolescence, cliques become less powerful and male-female relationships become the focus.

43. Popularity and rejection are central focuses of adolescent lives.
~ Complex social world during the teen years! Categorization can effect social and personality development!
 High status Categories:
Popular adolescents, who are most liked
Controversial adolescents, who are like by some and disliked by others
 Low status categories
Rejected teens, who are uniformly disliked
Neglected teens adolescents, who are neither liked nor disliked

44. The Social World of Adolescence
A teen’s popularity can fall into one of four categories, depending on the opinions of his or her peers. Popularity is related to differences in status, behavior and adjustment.

45. Another factor impacting teen development: Peer pressure
Some teens are highly susceptible to peer pressure!
PEER PRESSURE is the influence of one's peers to conform to their behavior and attitudes.
In essence, susceptibility to peer pressure does not rise in adolescence; in fact conformity decreases as adolescents increase their own autonomy.

46. When making decisions, adolescents turn to those whom they consider to be "experts" in that field or problem area.
Social decisions (what to wear, who to date, etc. ) they depend on peers
Non social matters (job/college info, etc.) they are more likely to ask an experienced adult
~Ultimately, however, teens learn to conform less to both peers and adults as they develop increasing autonomy over their lives.

47. Juvenile Delinquency in the Teen Years
Juvenile delinquency (especially violent crime behavior) rates are rising.
Adolescents (along with young adults) are more likely to commit crimes than any other age group!
One reason is that more behaviors are considered illegal for teens (curfew, drinking)
BUT adolescents are disproportionately involved in violent crimes (almost 20% of serious violent crimes are committed by teens alone or in groups!)
Murders, assaults, rapes

48. (Juvenile Delinquency in the Teen Years, continued)
 Why do teens become involved in criminal activity?
UNDERSOCIALIZED DELINQUENTS are raised with little parental supervision or discipline: they have not been appropriately socialized.
They tend to be relatively aggressive and violent early in life; rejected by peers; likely to have ADHD; and are usually less intelligent than average.
They are relatively unlikely to be rehabilitated

49. (Juvenile Delinquency in the Teen Years, continued)
SOCIALIZED DELINQUENTS are adolescent delinquents who know and subscribe to the norms of society, and who are fairly normal psychologically.
They are usually influenced by a group & their criminal behavior is usually committed with a group.

50. Dating, Sexual Behavior, and Teen Pregnancy: Major Impacts on Adolescent Development
By the age of 16, more than 90% of teens have had at least 1 date
Dating serves developmental functions!
Learning how to establish intimacy
Learning how to engage in entertainment
Contributes to an identity in progress!
Cultural influences effect dating patterns, especially if the concept of dating is unfamiliar to the parents (often more control, attempts to maintain cultural patterns)

51. Sex & sexual relationships are a major concern for adolescents
The maturation of sexual organs during the teen years creates a whole new world of relationship issues and possibilities for teens
Research shows that teens think about sex a substantial amount of time each day

52. (Teen Sex & sexual relationships, continued)
For most adolescents, their initiation into sexuality begins with masturbation (self stimulation)
Since masturbation often produces feelings of shame and guilt in the American culture
These feelings of guilt can impact development though! (a negative introduction to normal, healthy behavior

53. (Sex & sexual relationships during the teen years, continued…)
Ages for sexual intercourse have been declining
Around ½ of teens begin having intercourse between ages 15 & 18
At least 80% have had sex before age 20

54. Adolescents & Sexual Activity

55. The Impact of Changing Societal Norms on Sexual Conduct in Adolescence
The “double standard” (premarital sex great for males, not females) has been largely replaced by a new societal norm:
“Permissiveness with affection” (premarital sex ok for men and women if it occurs in a long term, committed, or loving relationship)

56. Sexual Orientation: Heterosexuality & Homosexuality
Sexual orientation questions also may occur at adolescence
The most frequent pattern of adolescent sexual development is heterosexuality (sexual attraction and behavior directed at someone of the opposite sex)

57. (Sexual Orientation: Heterosexuality & Homosexuality)
Some teens experience homosexual feelings (sexual attraction to members of one’s own sex)
About 25% of boys and 10% of girls have had at least one same-sex encounter
Far fewer numbers become exclusively homosexual
Difficult to determine exact numbers
Societal pressures, lack of exclusive behavior

59. Sexual orientation refers to the object of one’s sexual interest
The determination of sexual orientation is further complicated by confusion between sexual orientation and gender identity
Sexual orientation refers to the object of one’s sexual interest
Gender identity is the view that a person has of herself/himself of who they are psychologically

60. The factors inducing people to develop as heterosexual or homosexual are not well understood…
Most expert research indicates that biological and genetic factors play an important role
Psychological family theories do not hold up because no one type of family dynamic is consistently related to sexual orientation
Since U.S. society harbors great ignorance and prejudice regarding homosexuality, homosexual adolescents face greater difficulties developing during the teen years
Higher depression rates, risk for suicide

61. Most homosexual teens overcome difficulties
Affects of homosexuality on development during the teen years, continued
Most homosexual teens overcome difficulties
Once past adolescence, homosexuals have the same overall degree of mental and physical health as heterosexuals
Homosexuality is not a psychological disorder according the APA, AMA or any major health assn., and all endorse antidiscrimination campaigns

62. Another impact on social and personality development during the teen years: Teen Pregnancy
Teen pregnancy is now an epidemic: every minute of the day an adolescent in the U.S. gives birth!
Rates of teen pregnancy are much lower in other industrialized nations
Birth control less likely by U.S. teens
Intolerance of premarital sex in U.S. leads to lack of sex education

63. Teenage Pregnancy Rates
Teen pregnancy rates in the U.S. have declined significantly over the last decades across all ethnic groups.

64. Despite the decline in teen births, the problem of teen pregnancy remains a severe one!
Teen pregnancy can be devastating to both mother and child (father too, but less so!)
Mothers often have to quit school and become stuck in low paying jobs or welfare (“cycle of poverty-and-pregnancy”)
Children usually have poor health, poor school performance, and are more likely to repeat the pattern themselves

65. Teen Pregnancy, continued
Because the U.S. is still relatively intolerant of premarital sex, there are not enough education programs
~Key factors in preventing/breaking the poverty-pregnancy cycle are:
completing high school
postponing future births
(require education, supportive family, and increase in social programs!)

67. Don’t forget to keep up on your reading!