1. Government and Policymaking
Chapter Six
Government and Policymaking
Comparative Politics Today, 9/e
Almond, Powell, Dalton & Strøm
Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2008

2. Government and Policymaking
Policymaking is the pivotal stage in the political process.
To understand public policy, we must know decisions are made.
Government agencies are at the core of policymaking.
Two-way process:
Upward flow of influence and demands from society
Downward flow of decisions from the government

3. Constitutions and Decision Rules
A constitution establishes the basic rules of decision-making, rights, and the distribution of authority in a political system.
Written constitutions important in political systems based on the rule of law
Constitutions contain sets of decision rules.
These are the basic rules governing how decisions are made.
Policymaking is the conversion of social interests and demands into authoritative public decisions.
Constitutions establish the rules by which this happens.
Constitutions confer the power to propose policies on specific groups and institutions.

4. Constitutions and Decision Rules
Determine what political resources are valuable in influencing decision and how to acquire and use these resources.
Different decision rules have different attractions.
Inclusive rules (majority rule; cooperative rule)
Can protect against hasty decisions
But they can also give a minority the power to block proposals favored by a majority
The more inclusive the voting rules are the less likely it is that any decision can be made at all.
Less inclusive rules make it easier to reach a policy, but many interests may be ignored.

5. Constitutions and Decision Rules
The government as a whole and its institutions have decision rules.
Numerous rules affect the policymaking process.
In modern assemblies rules about voting - egalitarian rules; one person, one vote
Dictatorships - decision making is hierarchical
Pure hierarchy: only the vote of the person at the top counts
When decisions are made through equal voting, the inclusiveness of the decision rule still shapes the outcome.
Simple majority voting
Qualified majorities sometimes required for particularly consequential decisions
It is important that decision rules in a democracy be transparent and stable.

6. Making Constitutions
Constitution making is a fundamental political act.
It creates of transforms decision rules.
Britain unusual in it does not have a formal written constitution
Has a long-accepted and highly developed set of customs and conventions
Gradual and peaceful political change
Often new constitutions arise with civil upheaval.
An exception: The European Union
Decades since WWII have seen much constitutional experimentation.
India
Nigeria
Eastern Europe
Russia
Other Soviet successor states
South Africa

7. Democracy and Authoritarianism
The most important distinction in policymaking is between democratic and authoritarian systems.
Democracy means government by the people.
Direct or indirect participation by the public
Institutions facilitate indirect participation: elections, competitive political parties, free mass media, representative assemblies
In authoritarian regimes the policymakers are chosen by military councils, hereditary families, dominant political parties and the like.
Citizens are either ignored or pressed into symbolic assent.

8. Democracy and Authoritarianism
The basic decision rules of political systems - both democratic and authoritarian - differ along three important dimensions:
The separation of powers between different branches of government
The geographic distribution of authority between the central (national) government and lower levels, such as states, provinces, or municipalities
Limitations on government authority

9. Separation of Government Powers
Theory of separation of powers
Locke and Montesquieu
Madison and Hamilton
Classic separation of powers theory
Argued there are two forms of representative democratic government
Presidential
Two separate agencies of government: executive and legislative
Separately elected and authorized by the people
Fixed terms; cannot unseat the other branch; each with specific powers
Coordination must be achieved to make policy
Parliamentary
Executive and legislative branches are interdependent
Legislative branch directly elected; prime minister and cabinet emerge from the legislature
Confidence relationship
Do not experience the form of divided government that is common under presidentialism

11. Separation of Government Powers
Not all democracies fit neatly into the presidential or parliamentary category.
France- “semi-presidential”
In some mixed types, the president and the legislature are separately elected, but the president has the power to dissolve the legislature.
In such systems, the cabinet may be appointed by the president, but subject to dismissal by the legislature.
Debates have emerged as to the “best” system.

12. Geographic Distribution of Government Power
Confederal - U.S. under the Articles of Confederation
Federal - U.S., Germany, Russia, India, Nigeria, Mexico, and Brazil
Unitary - Britain, France, China, Japan and Iran
Most of the world’s states are unitary
Only 18 states are federal

14. Geographic Distribution of Government Power
Federalism is commonly thought to have several advantages:
In culturally divided societies it may help protect ethnic, linguistic, or religious minorities, particularly if they are geographically concentrated.
Serve as a check on overly ambitious rules and thus protect markets and citizen freedoms
May allow subunits to experiment with different policy programs
But it promotes choice and diversity at the expense of equality.
Sometimes there is a discrepancy between formal and actual federalism: Mexico

15. Limitations on Government Power
Constitutional regimes
Civil rights protected
Courts are crucial to the limitations on governmental power.
Judicial review
Lijphart characterizes only four of the 36 democratic systems he examines as having “strong” judicial review.
Often in constitution but harder to implement in practice
Amending procedures
Vary widely

17. Checking the Top Policymakers
Challenge: control the excesses of the top political leaders
Authoritarian systems: problematic
Democracies: procedures vary between types of systems
Parliamentary system: removed virtually at any time
Presidential system: impeachment
Associated with constitutions having powerful presidencies with fixed terms of office
Ultimate control of democratic order is periodic and competitive elections.

18. Assemblies Almost all contemporary political systems have assemblies.
More than 80% of the countries belonging to the U.N.
Vary in structure; bicameralism is common
Differ in their internal organization
All have a committee structure

19. Assembly Functions
Deliberate, debate, and vote on policies that come before them.
Typically also control public spending decisions
Some have important appointment powers.
Some may serve as a court of appeals.
Range in terms of their role as policymaking agencies: U.S. - highly active role; National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China, rubberstamp function
Assemblies should not be viewed only as legislative bodies.

20. Representation: Mirroring and Representational Biases
Descriptive representation/mirroring
For politicians to be good agents, they need to have similar preferences to the citizens they represent and they need the appropriate skills to do the job.
Democracies- role of parties for preference alignment
Mirroring versus expert delegation
Most of the time that elected members of legislative assemblies hardly ever mirror the citizens they represent on standard social characteristics.
Working class
Advancement of women- visible but uneven
Age

21. Political Executives
In modern states, the executive branch is by far the largest, the most complex, and typically the most powerful branch of government.
Chief executives
Single or split
Divided between effective power over policy, purely ceremonial roles or both
Presidents and Prime Ministers
Chairman of the Communist Party in China
Monarchs
Advantages the split system

23. Recruitment of Chief Executives
Recruitment structures
Competitive party systems
Noncompetitive parties and military organizations
Authoritarian systems rarely have effective procedures for leadership succession.
Poorer nations show substantially less stability and the regimes have usually had less experience at surviving succession crises.
African nations: repeated coups

25. The Cabinet
In many political systems, the Cabinet is the most important collective decision-making body.
Very powerful in parliamentary systems
Selection
Presidential systems: presidential prerogative with legislative approval; President can dismiss Cabinet members; legislature severely limited in this area
Parliamentary systems: formation depends on the result of parliamentary elections and on the composition of Parliament
Majority single-party cabinet
Coalition cabinet

27. Functions of the Chief Executive
Typically the most important structure in policymaking
The executive normally initiates new policies.
May have role in adoption
Typically has veto powers
Oversees policy implementation
Recruitment function
Conduct affects trust and confidence in the political system
Central role in communication, in explaining and building support for new policies
Improving the performance in various sectors of society and economy

29. The Bureaucracy
Large organizations in charge of implementing public policy
Size has increased
Civil service
Functions
Almost alone in implementing and enforcing laws and regulations
May articulate and aggregate interests
Adjudication
Involved in communication

30. Bureaucracy and Performance
Weber: features of bureaucracies
Decision making is based on fixed and official jurisdictions, rules and regulations;
There are formal and specialized educational or training requirements for each position;
There is a hierarchical command structure: a firmly ordered system of super- and subordination, in which information flows upward and decisions downward;
Decisions are made on the basis of SOPs, which include extensive written records; and
Officials hold career positions, are appointed and promoted on the basis of merit, and have protection against political interference, notably in the form of permanent job tenure.

31. Bureaucracy and Performance
Positive features
Liabilities
Control of bureaucracies in democratic countries
External government control: political executive
Centralized budgeting and administrative reorganization are other means of executive control.
Nomenklatura
Assemblies and courts
Hearings or judicial investigations
Ombudsman
Limited control in authoritarian systems
Corruption/failure of rule of law