1. Memory

2. Memory Processes
Encoding--transforming information into a form that can be entered and retained in the the memory system
Storage--retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time
Retrieval--recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it

3. Three Stages of Memory
Three memory stores that differ in function, capacity and duration
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; long-term memory; attention; encoding; maintenance rehearsal; retrieval

4. Sensory Memory Function —process for basic physical characteristics
Capacity—large
can hold many items at once
Duration—very brief retention of images
.3 sec for visual info
2 sec for auditory info
Divided into two types:
iconic memory–visual information
echoic memory– auditory information
Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory
Sensory
Input
Memory
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory

5. Sensory Memory
Visual sensory memory—brief memory of an image or icon. Also called iconic memory.
Auditory sensory memory—brief memory of a sound or echo. Also called echoic memory.
Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer than visual sensory memories

6. Short Term or Working Memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; attention; working memory; short-term memory

7. Short-Term Memory Function—conscious processing of information
where information is actively worked on
Capacity—limited (holds 7+/-2 items)
Duration—brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; memory span; 7 +/- 2 items
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention

8. Maintenance Rehearsal
Mental or verbal repetition of information allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; maintenance rehearsal

9. Chunking
Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information
expands working memory load
Which is easier to remember?
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; chunking

10. Long-Term Memory
Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

11. Long-Term Memory Function—organizes and stores information
more passive form of storage than working memory
Unlimited capacity
Duration—thought by some to be permanent
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

12. Long-Term Memory
Encoding—process that controls movement from working to long-term memory store
Retrieval—process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

13. Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
Automatic processing
Unconscious encoding of information
Examples:
What did you eat for lunch today?
Was the last time you studied during the day or night?
You know the meanings of these very words you are reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of the words?

14. Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
Effortful processing
Requires attention and conscious effort
Examples:
Memorizing your notes for your upcoming Introduction to Psychology exams
Repeating a phone number in your head until you can write it down

15. Types of Long-Term Memory
Explicit memory—memory with awareness; information can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory
Implicit memory—memory without awareness; memory that affects behavior but cannot consciously be recalled; also called nondeclarative memory

16. Explicit Memory Declarative or conscious memory
Memory consciously recalled or declared
Can use explicit memory to directly respond to a question
Two subtypes of explicit memory
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory;

17. Explicit Memory
Episodic information—information about events or “episodes”
Semantic information—information about facts, general knowledge, school work

18. Episodic Memory Memory tied to your own personal experiences Examples:
What month is your birthday?
Do you like to eat caramel apples?
Q: Why are these explicit memories?
A: Because you can actively declare your answers to these questions
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; episodic memory

19. Semantic Memory Memory not tied to personal events
General facts and definitions about the world
Examples:
How many tires on a car?
What is a cloud?
What color is a banana?
Does NOT depend on tying the item to your past
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; semantic memory

20. Implicit Memory Nondeclarative memory
Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory;

21. Procedural Memory
Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses
Examples:
Riding a bike
Using the shift stick while driving
Tying your shoe laces
Q: Why are these procedural memories implicit?
A: Don’t have to consciously remember the steps involved in these actions to perform them
Try to explain to someone how to tie a shoelace
Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory

22. How are memories organized?
Clustering--organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory
Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization

23. Semantic Network Model
Mental links between concepts
common properties provide basis for mental link
Shorter path between two concepts = stronger association in memory
Activation of a concept starts decremental spread of activity to nearby concepts
Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization; associations; spreading activation model

24. Semantic Network Model
Red
Fire
House
Cherry
Apple
Rose
Pear
Ambulance
Engine
Truck
Bus
Car
Flower
Violet
Hot
Pot
Stove
Pan
Pie
Hockenbury Slides (Schulman) Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization; associations; spreading activation model

25. Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
Retrieval from long-term memory
Depending on interference, retrieval
cues, moods, and motives, some
things get retrieved, some don’t
Long-term storage
Some items are altered or lost
Short-term memory
A few items are both noticed
and encoded
Sensory memory
The senses momentarily register
amazing detail
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting

26. Forgetting as retrieval failure
Retrieval—process of accessing stored information
Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Retrieval X
Encoding
Short-term
memory
Long-term
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; long-term memory

27. Measures of Retrieval
Recall—test of LTM that involves retrieving memories without cues, also termed free recall
Cued recall—test of LTM that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue
Recognition—test of LTM that involves identifying correct information from a series of possible choices
Serial position effect—tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle

28. Encoding Specificity
– When conditions of retrieval are similar to conditions of encoding, retrieval is more likely to be successful
– You are more likely to remember things if the conditions under which you recall them are similar to the conditions under which you learned them

29. Encoding Specificity Context effects—environmental cues to recall
State dependent retrieval—physical, internal factors
Mood Congruence—factors related to mood or emotions

30. Flashbulb Memories
Recall of very specific images or details about a vivid, rare, or significant event
May seem very vivid and specific, but they are not more accurate than ordinary memories

31. Memory Distortion
Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas
Giving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas

32. Loftus Experiment Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
Others asked: How fast were the cars going when the hit each other?
Accident
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars going
when they smashed into each other?”
Memory construction
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; Loftus; misleading information

33. The Forgetting Curve
Hermann Ebbinghaus first began to study forgetting using nonsense syllables
Nonsense syllables are three-letter combinations that look like words but are meaningless (ROH, KUF)

34. Forgetting Theories Encoding failure Interference theories
Motivated forgetting
Decay
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; encoding; decay theories; interference theories; retrieval cues

35. Forgetting as encoding failure
Info never encoded into LTM
Encoding X
Long-term
memory
Encoding failure
leads to forgetting
Short-term
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; encoding

36. Which is the real penny? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
(k) (l) (m) (n) (o)
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; encoding

37. Answer (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o)
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; encoding

38. Encoding Failures
Even though you’ve seen thousands of pennies, you’ve probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features
key words: forgetting; encoding

39. Interference Theories
“Memories interfering with memories”
Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time
Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory
Two types of interference
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories

40. Two Types of Interference
Retroactive
Interference
Proactive
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories;retroactive interference; proactive interference

41. Retroactive Interference
When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information
Example: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; retroactive interference

42. Retroactive Interference
Example: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language
Study French
papier
livre
plume
école
Study Spanish
papel
libro
pluma
escuela
French 101
Mid-term
exam F-
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; retroactive interference
Notes:
This is similar to an upcoming slide for proactive interference. The foreign language example can be used to demonstrate both retroactive and proactive interference, depending upon how you present it. Thus, examples of both are included. However, I generally only present only one of the two examples to avoid confusion for the students. For instance, I'll use the foreign language example for retroactive interference and the parking lot example for proactive interference.
retroactive interference

43. Proactive Interference
Opposite of retroactive interference
When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information
Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today ?
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; proactive interference

44. Motivated Forgetting Undesired memory is held back form awareness
Suppression—conscious forgetting
Repression—unconscious forgetting (Freudian)

45. Decay Theories Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused
Average
percentage of information
retained 20
mins 1 hr 8
hrs 24 2
days 6 31
Interval between original learning of nonsense syllables and memory test
100%
Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused
Time plays critical role
Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; decay theories

46. Decay Theories Biology-based theory
When new memory formed, it creates a memory trace
a change in brain structure or chemistry
If unused, normal brain metabolic processes erode memory trace
Theory not widely favored today
key words: forgetting; retrieval; decay theories; memory trace

47. Biological Basis of Memory
Karl Lashley searched for a localized memory trace or engram
Found that maze-learning in rats was distributed throughout the brain
Richard Thompson found that memory for simple classically conditioned responses was localized (in the cerebellum)
Discovering Psy2e Photo p. 227

48. Amnesia Amnesia—severe memory loss
Retrograde amnesia—inability to remember past episodic information; common after head injury; need for consolidation
Anterograde amnesia—inability to form new memories; related to hippocampus damage