2. A New Century and New Opportunities
Section 1 The World War I Years
Section 2 Changes in Black Society
Section 3 The Harlem Renaissance

3. Section 1: The World War I Years
Main Idea
In the early 1900s imperialism in Africa and World War I affected people of African descent worldwide.
Reading Focus
How did people of African descent react to European imperialism in Africa in the late 1800s?
How did World War I begin?
What roles did African Americans play in World War I?

4. Building Background
As Americans were busy settling new territories in the West in the late 1800s, powerful European countries were expanding as well. Many countries rushed to establish colonies around the globe. This race for colonies would eventually play a part in the outbreak of one of the most devastating wars in history—World War I.

5. Imperialism in Africa
For centuries Western nations controlled colonies around the world; practice of imperialism gave powerful nations control of weaker nations
Ruling countries benefited economically
Colonies supplied valuable raw materials—such as metals, cotton, and timber—for European factories
Colonies served as a market for European goods
Late 1800s and early 1900s saw new wave of imperialism
Western nations sought out more colonies with Africa a chief target; European nations raced to gain access to natural resources

6. Belgium and the Congo Other Western Nations Responses to Takeover
Belgium’s King Leopold II—the Congo Free State in Central Africa
Companies allowed to exploit region’s people; forced them to collect resources for export
Other nations colonized Africa as well
Other Western Nations
France controlled French West Africa
British held colonies in Egypt, Nigeria, and southern Africa
Germany, Italy, Portugal, and Spain also held African colonies
Responses to Takeover
1914 only two African nations still independent
Black leaders held the first Pan-African Conference in 1900; people of African descent gathered to address issues facing blacks, including racism and imperialism
Pan-Africanism
W. E. B. Du Bois, a conference organizer, took up the idea of Pan-Africanism; people of African heritage should work together to achieve freedom and equality
Idea powerful influence for future black activists

7. Reading Check
Identify Cause and Effect
What conditions led to the creation of the Pan-African movement?
Answer(s):
imperialism in Africa and racism against people of African descent

8. World War I Begins The United States Enters the War
In 1914 tensions between imperialist powers exploded into a war that came to involve all of the world’s Western powers.
The United States Enters the War
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia; within weeks a network of treaties and alliances pulled almost every country in Europe into the fighting
On one side Allied Powers of France, Great Britain, Italy, and Russia
Opposing them were the Central Powers of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire
The U.S. remained neutral, or chose not to take sides for three years; most Americans did not want a bloody overseas war
After German attacks on U.S. merchant ships and the deaths of American civilians, the United States joined the war on the Allied side

9. The Call for Troops
Thousands of men volunteered for military service; as with the Civil War black men eager to serve their country were turned away
African Americans themselves were divided over the issue of serving
Some black leaders wondered why those denied full rights at home should defend freedom for others
Other black leaders, such as Robert S. Abbott, publisher of the Chicago Defender, and W. E. B. Du Bois, supported the war effort; urged African Americans to volunteer in spite of the discrimination faced at home
In May 1917 Congress passed the Selective Service Act
African American men allowed to serve their country in “the war to end all wars”
Black troops would face discrimination in the armed forces much like the discrimination they faced in civilian life

11. Reading Check
Analyze
How did African American attitudes toward serving in World War I differ?
Answer(s):
Some believed that blacks should not defend a home country in which they were denied full rights. Others thought that blacks should fight for democracy.

12. African Americans in World War I
As Du Bois argued, “Out of the war will rise…an American Negro, with the right to vote, and the right to work, and the right to live without insult.”
Blacks Serve in the War
Once U.S. entered the war, the African American troops already in the armed forces called to duty
20,000 black troops in the U.S. Army and National Guard units; by war’s end 370,000 had served
All-black divisions commanded by white officers; received little or no training with weapons
Worry that African Americans who could use guns posed a threat
Combat Roles
Only 40,000 blacks saw action on the battlefield
Eugene Jacques Bullard, the world’s first black fighter pilot
Joined the French Foreign Legion in 1914; flew on 20 missions with French air force
U.S. Army Air Service rejected him when he sought to fly for his native country—black pilots were not welcome

13. Black Army Officers
When U.S. entered World War I in 1917, only three African American commissioned officers in the entire U.S. military
As black troops joined the military, black leaders protested discrimination against black officers
Black leaders argued that the government should not deny “the right of our best [Negro] men to lead troops of their race into battle”
May 1917 the U.S. Army finally established a training camp in Iowa for black officers
By war’s end, this camp commissioned more than 600 black officers; most assigned to black labor battalions behind the front

14. Black Troops in Combat Two Combat Units Opportunity
Only two African American units saw overseas combat—the 92nd and the 93rd infantry divisions
The 92nd arrived on the front lines in France in August 1918; saw heavy fighting against Germans
The 93rd’s most famous unit, the 369th Infantry, also known as the Harlem Hell Fighters
Spring of 1918, the unit assigned to serve with the French army; accustomed to fighting with black soldiers from France’s African colonies, French troops did not object to integrating their forces
Opportunity
The 369th fought bravely; became the first Allied unit to reach the Rhine River in Germany
Service came at a high cost—almost 1,500 Harlem Hell Fighters died in combat; 171 members of the 369th received the Legion of Honor, France’s highest award
Most highly honored African American soldiers in World War I were both members of the 369th—Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts
Both honored with the Croix de Guerre for their bravery

16. Black Nurses After the War
Before World War I, a group of black women organized the National Association of Colored Nurses; determined that African American nurses gain proper recognition and be accepted as professionals
In September 1918, a devastating worldwide flu epidemic broke out; needing nurses, the army sent 18 black nurses to hospitals in Ohio and Illinois
Nurses tended both black and white patients; earned high praise from those they worked with
After the War
Returning African American veterans received little recognition for their wartime sacrifices; the 369th Infantry honored in a war veterans parade, other areas largely ignored blacks’ contributions
Veterans refused to accept these insults quietly
After helping to fight for freedom overseas, many believed that earned the right for greater freedoms at home

18. Reading Check
Summarize
What roles did African Americans play in the course of World War I?
Answer(s):
African American soldiers fought in combat, served as officers, and provided manual labor; black nurses served in the 1918 flu outbreak.

19. Section 2: Changes in Black Society
Main Idea
The migration of African Americans to the North and the birth of black nationalism resulted in changes for black society.
Reading Focus
What led thousands of southern blacks to migrate to the North?
What events led up to the Red Summer of 1919?
How did black nationalism and social gains lead to changes in the United States?

20. Building Background
As the United States entered World War I in Europe, changes were taking place at home. Tired of years of discrimination and poverty in the South, thousands of African Americans began moving to the North in record numbers. This migration of people led to many changes in the United States.

21. The Great Migration
Demand for war equipment and supplies surged with war; northern factories booming, but work force fighting overseas
Many northern businesses looked to the South for workers; African Americans from the South moved north in search of better lives
Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Detroit held the promise of steady jobs
African American newspapers such as the Chicago Defender played key role in encouraging black southerners to move north
Black southerners hoped to escape the segregation, poverty, and racial violence they often faced in the South, where many had little choice but to work as sharecroppers or in low-paying jobs
Economic troubles—during the war, farmers and laborers suffered from damaged crops, poor harvests, and a sharp drop in wages

22. Effects of the Great Migration Changes to Northern Cities
Economic and social factors resulted in 330,000 black southerners moving north
This enormous movement of people from 1910 to 1920 became known as the Great Migration
Changes to Northern Cities
Key result rapid growth of many northern cities
Black Americans moved in record numbers to industrial cities in the North
St. Louis, Chicago, and Detroit experienced tremendous growth
Influence on Culture
Massive movement of people influenced northern culture
African Americans brought southern customs with them
Black musicians from the South introduced the blues to many northern cities
The Blues
Born in the Mississippi Delta and nurtured in New Orleans, the blues combines instrumental rhythms and expressive vocals to convey deep emotions, especially sadness or love
Blues musician W.C. Handy

24. Reading Check
Summarize
How did the Great Migration lead to changes in the North?
Answer(s):
The arrival of African Americans in the North led to the growth of cities and the introduction of elements of southern culture.

25. Red Summer of 1919 Racial Tensions Rise Expectations
Racial tension in the United States grew more severe after the end of World War I, reaching a peak in 1919 when race riots broke out across the country. James Weldon Johnson named the bloody racial violence the Red Summer.
Racial Tensions Rise
Reasons—factory jobs war-related
Demand for products fell suddenly after war; workers lost their jobs
Little work available for returning American soldiers; competed with African Americans for scarce factory jobs
Resulting competition between black and white workers led to a sharp increase in tensions in many cities
Expectations
African American expectations changing
Many blacks felt they had earned greater freedom at home after helping fight for freedom overseas during the war
Some whites determined to resist any changes to the status quo
African Americans grew increasingly frustrated and angry

26. Violence Breaks Out
In the South, some whites began to punish anyone who encouraged black people to move north or otherwise assert their independence; some cities levied heavy fees against recruiting agents
In other places, laws made it illegal to sell or distribute black publications such as the Chicago Defender or the NAACP’s magazine The Crisis, both of which encouraged black southerners to seek better lives in the North
A number of race riots broke out in the summer of 1919; 25 such riots were recorded

27. Race Riots
Riots in Charleston, SC; Washington, D.C.; Knoxville, TN; Longview, TX; Elaine, AR; Omaha, NE; and Chicago, IL
Most of these race riots triggered by what could have been harmless events
Other riots had more intentional beginnings; Knoxville and Omaha riots both began when mobs tried to protect blacks accused of attacking white citizens
The Longview riot begun by white men who went to the black section of town to punish a schoolteacher who had written condemnation of recent lynchings for the Chicago Defender

28. Reading Check
Identify
What led to the outbreak of race riots in 1919?
Answer(s):
an increase in racial tension caused by competition for jobs and resistance to change

29. Black Nationalism and Social Gains
Violence during the Red Summer did little to deter black Americans, who increased their efforts to end discrimination and win equal rights.
Marcus Garvey
Founder of the black nationalism movement
Black nationalism was the belief that black people around the world should create their own societies, separate and distinct from white societies
Direct contrast to Booker T. Washington, W. E. B. Du Bois, and the NAACP, who believed in breaking down barriers between blacks and whites
Garvey feared that this goal threatened the racial purity of African Americans and that it discouraged the feelings of unity and strength he tried to foster in black communities worldwide
In 1914, Garvey founded an organization known as the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) with a goal of encouraging a return to Africa to build a new nation there
Its slogan was “Back to Africa”

30. Independent Black Economy
Believing that respect and self-reliance would come from economic strength, Garvey wanted to build an independent black economy in the United States
Felt blacks should take pride in their African heritage; his newspaper, The Negro World, boasted of the accomplishments of people of African descent and of the glories of African culture
Message of self-reliance and black pride proved enormously popular, and the UNIA soon claimed some 2 million members
Garvey made many enemies; 1922 Garvey and other members of the UNIA indicted for mail fraud
Supporters felt charges politically motivated but Garvey convicted and imprisoned in 1925
Released from jail in 1927; forced to leave the country
Without his leadership the UNIA soon declined

32. Victories Against Lynching
New Labor Unions
1910s—Benjamin Fletcher organized unions under the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW); included most of Philadelphia’s black dockworkers
In 1925—A. Philip Randolph lead the formation of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; the country’s first truly successful black labor union
Unionizing dangerous; Fletcher spent 10 years in jail for his unionizing efforts; a 1919 race riot started when whites attacked black farmers discussing plans to join a union
Victories Against Lynching
NAACP leaders believed in the need for a federal anti-lynching law
From 1901 to 1920, 16 anti-lynching bills had been introduced; in 1922 the House passed the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill
Despite support from the NAACP and President Warren G. Harding, the bill was again blocked in the Senate; reintroduced in 1923—no action taken
Debate over the Dyer Bill raised public outrage over lynchings

33. Reading Check
Analyze
What were three ways in which African Americans worked to improve their lives in the 1910s and 1920s?
Answer(s):
black nationalism, the creation of labor unions, and the fight against lynching

34. Section 3: The Harlem Renaissance
Main Idea
Expressions of black culture, including literature, music, and art, reached new heights during the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and 1930s.
Reading Focus
Why was Harlem home to an outpouring of African American cultural expression?
Who were some key writers and poets of the Harlem Renaissance?
What roles did black performers and musicians play in the Harlem Renaissance?

35. Building Background
During the Great Migration, New York City was a primary destination for many black migrants to the North. There, thousands of African Americans hoped to build better lives for themselves. In one New York neighborhood, black artists and intellectuals would begin a vibrant artistic and literary movement that would shape American culture.

36. Roots of the Harlem Renaissance
Thousands of African Americans flocked to New York City during the Great Migration
Many migrants to New York settled in the neighborhood known as Harlem; located in the northern portion of Manhattan Island, Harlem a popular neighborhood for African Americans since end of 1800s
After World War I, Harlem center of black social and cultural life and activism
African Americans living in Harlem felt a strong sense of racial pride and identity
Attracted talented African American artists, writers, thinkers, and musicians
Community shared their experiences; encouraged greater creative heights
Common theme resistance to white prejudice and a pride in African American culture and heritage
Harlem home to the first branch of the NAACP and Marcus Garvey’s Universal Negro Improvement Association

37. W.E.B. Du Bois National Urban League Alain Locke Harlem Renaissance
Served as editor of NAACP’s The Crisis; magazine published in Harlem
Featured African American writing and poetry;
Helped promote racial pride and identity
National Urban League
Also helping promote racial pride National Urban League
Like the NAACP, the Urban League published a magazine
The magazine Opportunity highlighted black culture
Alain Locke
Notable figure in the development of African American culture in the early 1900s
Howard University philosophy professor; Locke encouraged black artists to connect to their African heritage
Harlem Renaissance
Locke pushed black authors to write about African American life
By 1917, emphasis on black culture led to the artistic and literary movement known as the Harlem Renaissance

38. Reading Check
Draw Conclusions
Why do you think that Harlem was home to an African American cultural movement?
Answer(s):
because many African Americans lived in the area, including artists and intellectuals

39. Black Writers and Poets
The Harlem Renaissance dominated African American cultural life for two decades. Writers and poets expressed new ideas about life and culture.
A Burst of Creativity
Works of white writers focusing on the black experience in the U.S. served to inspire African American writers and poets who burst onto the U.S. cultural scene during the Harlem Renaissance
Works of talented black writers promoted through leading African American magazines, such as The Crisis and Opportunity
National Urban League hosting an annual literary contest
The contest helped propel black writers into the mainstream of American literature.
Common themes among these writers were racial pride and resistance to prejudice

40. Langston Hughes
Poet, essayist, and playwright Langston Hughes—one of the best-known writers of the Harlem Renaissance
Came to national attention in 1921 at the age of 19 when his poem “The Negro Speaks of Rivers” appeared in The Crisis
In 1925 he won a poetry prize from Opportunity magazine
One of the leading figures of the Harlem Renaissance
Produced poems, plays, and novels focusing on black life and culture; believed that black writers should express their “individual dark-skinned selves without fear or shame.”
Works used African American slang and musical rhythms and expressed the joy, suffering, and pride of being a black American
Hughes wrote until his death in 1967; celebrated as leading writer in American literature

42. Other Writers and Poets
Another gifted Harlem writer James Weldon Johnson
Co-wrote the song “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” which became the official NAACP anthem
A political activist, Johnson helped organize anti-lynching activities for the NAACP and pushed for the passage of the Dyer Bill
Some consider his God’s Trombones, a collection of African American sermons written in verse, among the finest Harlem Renaissance works
Claude McKay
Claude McKay considered the spokesperson for the more militant group of young black writers during this period
One most famous poems, “If We Must Die,” deals with violence of the Red Summer of 1919; one of the first Renaissance writers to gain widespread success
1928 best-selling novel, Home to Harlem, most successful novel by an African American writer up to that time

43. Zora Neale Hurston Novelist Other Writers Literary Movement
Major contributor to the new literary movement in Harlem
Hurston’s writing influenced by folklore, or traditional stories, sayings, and other art forms
1935 of Mules and Men, a collection gathered during FL study
Novelist
Hurston wrote plays, novels, and short stories; most famous novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God, about a young black woman in the early 1900s still feeling the legacy of slavery and discrimination
Other female writers emerged
Other Writers
As literary editor for The Crisis, Jessie Redmon Fauset helped promote the careers of writers and was a successful novelist herself
Another celebrated Harlem writer Nella Larsen often focused on the lives of African American women
Literary Movement
Spread beyond New York
Black writers were inspired to publish their own works, contributing to the revitalization of black culture
Writers outside the United States were influenced

45. Reading Check
Summarize
What topics did writers of the Harlem Renaissance address?
Answer(s):
They often addressed black life and culture, including politics, folklore, and society.

46. Musicians, Artists, and Performers
Literature was not the only focus of the Harlem Renaissance. African American musicians, artists, and performers also took center stage in Harlem in the early 1900s.
The Jazz Age
Late 1920s, Harlem was the hotspot for a new form of music called jazz
Birth traced back to turn-of-the-century New Orleans
African American musicians blended several musical styles, including spirituals, blues, ragtime, marching band music, hillbilly music, and various European traditions
New Music
New, different, and wholly original American form of music
Jazz traveled to northern cities like Chicago and New York
A jazz song might start with a known melody or theme, but much of the music was composed on the spot
Jazz could be fast to slow, and it was easy to dance to

47. Louis Armstrong
Jazz was by its spirit and creativity; “Man, if you have to ask what it is,” legendary jazz musician Louis Armstrong once stated, “you’ll never know”
A leading performer on the Harlem jazz scene, Louis Armstrong was played at the Savoy Ballroom and the Cotton Club
Jazz fans invented new dance steps as the music inspired them, including the jitterbug and the Lindy Hop (named after Charles Lindbergh)
Jazz fans also came to Harlem to see Bessie Smith, “the Empress of the Blues”
As a teenager, Smith sang her own “down-home” version of the blues in small cafes throughout the South; by 1923, she signed with Columbia Records; her first release, “Down-Hearted Blues,” sold over 2 million copies
Smith would record with all of the top Jazz Age musicians and earn an incredible $2,000 a week for her performances; together with Louis Armstrong, she is credited with developing the tradition of jazz singing

49. Black Artists
Black painters, sculptors, photographers, and filmmakers contributed to the creative energy in Harlem during the 1920s and 1930s
Artists united by a desire to create art that expressed the history and experiences of African Americans
Painter Aaron Douglas was among the leading artists of the Harlem Renaissance
Often called the “father of African American art,” Douglas first black artist to experiment with modernism and to use symbols from African art in his paintings, murals, and illustrations
By contrast, sculptor and art educator Augusta Savage crafted stunningly realistic symbols of black pride and aspirations
Harlem Renaissance artists—Loïs Mailou Jones, James VanDerZee, and William H. Johnson to name a few—captured the black experience

50. Black Performers
African American performers took part in theatrical productions in Harlem
1917 an all-black group of actors gained praise for their performances in a series of one-act plays
1921 production of Shuffle Along; written, performed, and produced by blacks
Musical brought African American theater to popularity
African American performers got their start in New York theater
Tap dancer Bill “Bojangles” Robinson starred in vaudeville—a sort of early variety show that combined acting, music, and comedy
Actor Paul Robeson also drew critical acclaim for his dramatic performances

51. The Harlem Renaissance Comes to a Close
A time of great cultural achievement; went beyond New York City
Black writers, musicians, and artists had national, world-wide appeal
Jazz styles popular in Chicago, Paris, and other cities
Writers and poets imitated the styles of Harlem writers
Black and white Americans alike were captivated by the new styles that originated in Harlem
Historians have noted the spread of the ideas of the Harlem Renaissance to other parts of the United States
The Harlem Renaissance popular through the 1920s; by the 1930s period drawing to a close
Leaders such as W. E. B. Du Bois and James Weldon Johnson moved away from Harlem
Movement lost some of its steam

52. Influence Continues
Another key factor in decline —1929 economic depression in the U.S.
In the struggled to earn a living, the artistic movement slowly declined
Influence remained with writer Langston Hughes and artist Aaron Douglas
Many participants from Harlem still influence the arts today
The Harlem Renaissance created a unique cultural movement

53. Reading Check
Draw Conclusions
Why might the styles of the Harlem Renaissance have been so widely popular?
Answer(s):
They were very diverse and attracted a large number of people.