1. Problem Solving & Creativity Dr. Claudia J. Stanny EXP 4507 Memory & Cognition Spring 2009

2. Overview Representing problems Strategies for solving problems Expertise and problem solving Impediments to solving problems Creativity Claudia J. Stanny2

3. What is a Problem? Discrepancy between the current situation and a desired situation Initial state Goal State Obstacles that make transition between states difficult Problem solving entails: Accurately representing the problem Discovering procedures to eliminate obstacles Claudia J. Stanny3

4. Types of Problems Well-defined problems Can identify or describe a “correct” solution May be established algorithms for arriving at a solution Ill-defined problems A single “correct” solution may not be known Difficult to evaluate the quality of multiple potential solutions Procedures for solving the problem may be unknown Claudia J. Stanny4

5. Representing Problems Different problems must be represented differently to achieve a solution Need to discover and use the most appropriate method for representing problems of a given type Symbols Matrices Diagrams Visual images Claudia J. Stanny5

6. Coin tossHeads 3 HeadsTails 2 Heads, 1 Tail TailsHeads 2 Heads, 1 Tail Tails 1 Head, 2 Tails TailsHeads 2 Heads, 1 Tail Tails 1 Head, 2 Tails TailsHeads 1 Head, 2 Tails Tails3 Tails Probability Tree Diagram 6Claudia J. Stanny

7. Problem-Solving Strategies Algorithms Heuristics Mean-ends analysis Hill-climbing heuristic Analogies Claudia J. Stanny7

8. Mean-Ends Analysis General Problem Solver (Newell & Simon) Problem space Beginning/Current state Goal state Operations available to modify the current state Problems are defined as a difference between the current state and the goal state Solution may require setting sub-goals Select operations that reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state 8Claudia J. Stanny

9. Hill-Climbing Heuristic At each choice point, select the operation or procedure that moves you closer to the goal state Problem: Sometimes the solution requires temporarily moving away from the goal state Claudia J. Stanny9

10. Backward Reasoning Reverse the process in means-ends analysis Consider the operations needed to make the goal state look more like the current state Helps in establishing important subgoals for means-ends analysis May help identify important operations that are not obvious when using forward reasoning 10Claudia J. Stanny

11. Reasoning by Analogy Use a known system to serve as a model for the current problem Basis for the analogy Surface features of the problem and the model are similar Structural features of the problem and the model are similar We discover useful solutions more often when the analogy is based on similar structural features 11Claudia J. Stanny

12. Problem Solving by Experts and Novices How details about the problem are perceived Memory for details about the problem Experts recognize important structural characteristics of problems Experts rely more frequently on forward reasoning Proceduralization of reasoning strategies Differences between experts and novices are domain-specific rather than general 12Claudia J. Stanny

13. Factors that Interfere with Effective Problem Solving 13Claudia J. Stanny

14. Mental Set Bias to adopt the strategy, procedure or interpretation that was used with previous problems Make assumptions that are not justified and that interfere with solution to the problem Functional Fixedness: Focus on typical uses for objects rather than novel uses that will enable solving the problem 14Claudia J. Stanny

15. Luchins Water Jug Problem Jar A 20; Jar B 5; Jar C 130 – Need 100 Jar A 12; Jar B 3; Jar C 108 – Need 90 Jar A 6; Jar B 1; Jar C 28 – Need 20 Jar A 6; Jar B 4; Jar C 44 – Need 30 Jar A 10; Jar B 5; Jar C 30 – Need 15 15Claudia J. Stanny

16. Functional Fixedness Failure to recognize multiple uses of objects typically used for other purposes Duncker (1945) candle problem Identify 10 uses for this object: Claudia J. Stanny16

17. What is Creativity? Creativity is frequently defined in terms of the characteristics of creative products: Solutions to problems Artistic creations Characteristics of creative solutions & ideas Novel High quality Useful Appropriate to context Claudia J. Stanny17

18. Creativity Mechanisms for creative thought Role of special processes such as incubation Ordinary cognitive processes also contribute to creative results Directed remembering – conscious retrieval of information under constraints Noticing – attention to errors during edits/revisions Flexibility – recognizing and categorizing objects in multiple ways Thinker is motivated to search extensively for information that meets criteria of novelty Evaluate potential solution or new idea Will it solve the problem? Will it create undesirable outcomes? 18Claudia J. Stanny

19. Measuring Aptitude for Creativity Divergent Thinking Approach (Guilford) Focus on ability to generate multiple and varied responses to a single prompt Investment Theory of Creativity (Sternberg) Produce a new idea when no one else is interested (“buy low”) When idea becomes popular (“sell high”), move on to a new project Focus on characteristics of creative individuals and the environments that support them Claudia J. Stanny19

20. Remote Associates Test Assumes creativity requires discovering new relations between concepts. Find a single word that is related to all three of the following words: 20Claudia J. Stanny

21. Attributes that Promote Creativity Characteristics of the individual: Intelligence Knowledge (expertise in area of creativity) Motivation Appropriate thinking style Appropriate personality Characteristics of the environment Encouraging environment Claudia J. Stanny21

22. Factors that Influence Creativity Intrinsic motivation High intrinsic motivation is associated with higher levels of creativity Greater persistence at tasks required to generate multiple solutions and struggle with obstacles Extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivational pressures such as formal evaluations & offers of rewards reduce the quality of creative products generated (especially if the reward system limits options) Useful for ensuring people meet deadlines Claudia J. Stanny22