1. THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES Syntax

2. Learning objectives Explain the notions “language organ” and “Universal Grammar” Explain the similarities and differences between languages (principles and parameters) Explain how sentences are constructed

3. Phrase structure grammar: immediate constituent analysis L. Bloomfield looked at constituents which make up linguistic units: words can be broken down into morphemes, and morphemes into phonemes How can the sentence be broken down into its structural units, and how those units, i.e. phrases, can be broken down into smaller units, until we reach the smallest constituent

4. Immediate constituent analysis The boy kicked the ball. (a) the boy kicked the ball (b) the boy kicked the ball

5. Immediate constituent analysis On the syntagmatic level, we can add elements between our constituents: B) The boy quickly kicked the ball The boy angrily kicked the ball A)*The boy kicked quickly the ball *The boy kicked angrily the ball B) The boy kicked tha ball quickly The boy kicked the ball angrily

6. Phrase structure rules The boy kicked the ball Noun phrase (NP) verb phrase (VP) The boy Determiner noun

7. Evidence for an independent language faculty: People display a knowledge of grammar that is deeper than what they could get from the linguistic input they receive – the poverty-of-the stimulus argument Language impairment (aphasia/Down syndrome): language independent from intelligence

8. Sentence S NP VP

9. Sentence Each point on the tree is called a node, and each node defines a syntactic category The NP dominated immediately by the S node is the subject The NP dominated by the VP is an object Thus, subject and object are defined through the role they play in syntax, through syntactic terms, rather than semantic ones

10. Transformational generative grammar Chomsky: structuralist explanations could not distinguish between sentences such as: John is easy to please and John is eager to please While the surface structure is similar, the deep structure reveals a major difference: the implied subject in the first is John and in the second John is the object

11. Transformational generative grammar Chomsky: structuralist grammars could not explain ambiguity which can arise from the syntactic arrangement of clauses, e.g. Stolen painting found by tree

12. Generative structure Each category has a head: NP, VP What is the head of the sentence? Government and binding theory: it is the information as to tense/aspect/modality (Aux)

13. Universal Grammar: Principles & parameters People – “pre-programmed” with principles of grammar – Universal Grammar (UG) Universal grammar has a biological basis– a language organ Principles of UG are common across all languages One of these principles, which is considered as an essential property of human language, is recursion: allows individuals to understand an unlimited number of sentences without memorizing each one of them (cf. poverty of stimulus)

14. Principle of recursion Grammars are finite but they nonetheless enable individuals to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences This is made possible through the principle of recursion Recursion means that grammatical processes can apply more than once, which enables speakers to produce sentences of indefinite length and complexity

15. Mechanisms of recursion Embedding: One can always add additional subordinate clauses within a frame of the sentence e.g. This is the house that Jack built<This is the cheese that lay in the house that Jack built< This is the mouse that nibbled the cheese that lay in the house that Jack built etc. Coordination: We can use coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or etc.) to link an indefinite number of sentences e.g. Mary went to the airport and John went to the bus station but Joanna cancelled her trip and went to the mall.

16. Parameters of UG Some of the principles of UG are underspecified, which means that they can be realized through different parameters in different languages Once all the parameters have been correctly set for a particular language, then we have a grammar for this language Example: every language must have a subject – principle (underspecified); subject can be expressed in different ways – parameter values (pronouns in English and Italian)

17. Modularity of language Principles and parameters – part of a syntactic computational mechanism This mechanism feeds both the articulatory (phonetic) component and the interpretative (semantic) component Each of these components functions independently - modularity Various modules can feed each other through interfaces Phonetic form (PF) interface with articulatory module; Logical form (LF) – interface with the interpretative module

18. Y-model: centrality of syntax Syntax draws information from the lexicon and “feeds” both PF and LF PF LF Lexicon Syntax

19. Table of grammatical categories TypeWord categoryExamplesPhrasal category LexicalNoun (N)Puppy, parkNoun Phrase (NP) LexicalVerb (V)Take, run, beVerbal Phrase (VP) LexicalAdjective (A)Good, red, bigAdjective Phrase (AP) LexicalAdverb (Adv)Happily, fastAdverb Phrase (AdvP) FunctionalDeterminer (D)This, the, a, hisDeterminer Phrase (DP) FunctionalPreposition (P)In, on, betweenPrepositional Phrase (PP) FunctionalComplementizer (C) thatComplementizer Phrase (CP

20. Lexical vs. Functional categories Words that belong to lexical categories are semantically rich and contribute primarily to the meaning of the sentence (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions) – open category Words in functional categories – semantically weak, and contribute more to the grammar of sentences than to the meaning (e.g. determiners) – closed category

21. Compositionality Grammar of every language – compositional and hierarchical Sentences are made of smaller constituents (phrases), which in turn are made up of even smaller constituents (words)

22. Compositionality: Constituency tests 1) noun replacement (A girl with a golden earring ate an apple > She ate an apple vs. *She with a golden earring ate an apple)- only an entire nominal constituent can be replaced with a pronoun 2) verb replacement (She ate an apple and so did I vs. *She ate an apple and so did I a pear)- only an entire verbal constituent can be replaced with do Certain groups of words form close units: constituents, e.g. Nominal constituent (1) (NP=noun phrase), (2) verbal constituent (VP=verb phrase)

23. Hierarchy Even though sentences are linear on the surface, their constituents are organized in a hierarchical way

24. Projection Composing the structure of a sentence begins with words that belong to categories such as noun, verb, preposition, adjective, or determiner These words – heads of phrases Phrases are constructed bottom-up: words are drawn from a lexicon – a mental dictionary stored in people’s brain - and merged into structures Once they are inserted into structures they project phrases (XPs) of the same category (e.g. NP, VP, DP) which form larger constituents that compose a sentence

25. Complementizer phrase (CP) The basic function of complementizers is to turn an independent sentence into a complement Therefore each subordinate clause is headed by an additional phrase projected by the complementizer (CP) Different types of complementizers depending on the type of subordinate clause: in declaratives, complementizers like that (I heard that those children want a puppy); in interrogatives, complementizers like if (He wondered if it would rain) A CP selects a TP in this context

26. CP in simple sentences Matrix clauses can also be divided in different types (e.g. declarative, interrogative, exclamative) In subordinate contexts, different types of clauses are associated with different complementizers,

27. Adjunction Heads, complements, and specifiers make up the core meaning of a phrase, while adjuncts add extra description (Those little children in the park want a puppy badly)

28. Movement Besides building phrase structures, syntax can also move parts of phrase structures around, by detaching them from the position in which they were originally inserted in the structure, and moving them somewhere else

29. Movement and deletion Movement functions by copying an item into a new location, leaving a copy in the original position (sometimes described as a trace (t). This copy must later be deleted, because both copies cannot be pronounced at the same time Syntax distinguishes between two types of movements: head movement (e.g. auxiliary movement in questions) and phrasal movement (e.g. wh-movement in questions)

30. Summary Much of grammatical structure does not have to be “learned” People “know” a lot about what is or isn’t a possible grammatical structure without having been taught, or even having had the right kind of experience to have learned it: they know it because principles of UG are innate The principle of recursion enables individuals to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences based on a limited input (cf. Poverty of stimulus)

31. Summary One principle of the structure of sentences – compositionality: sentences are composed of clauses and phrases, which in turn are made up of smaller clauses and phrases or words Compositionality - achieved by projection of simple phrases from words from the mental lexicon The phrases projected take on the lexical and functional categories of the words that project them

32. Summary Some phrases have complement and/or specifier branches which merge with phrases that have been projected from other words A special kind of merge – adjunction, which allows modifiers (e.g. adjectives and adverbs) to be included in a phrase Once phrases are constructed by projection and merge, they can be further modified by various types of movement (e.g. head movement and phrasal movement)

33. Summary Formal syntax - based on deducing abstract grammatical principles from observing what sentences are possible and not possible, without regard to how they are used Formal approaches insist on the centrality of syntax whithin the human language faculty; other types of approaches (e.g. functional perspectives) put greater emphasis on semantics or language usage