1. Semilingualism Applied: Bi-iliteracy or Emerging Biliteracy
Kathy Escamilla
University of Colorado, Boulder

2. Introduction
Ruiz (1988) - Non-English languages (especially Spanish) are viewed as problems to be remedied in schools
McSwan, Rolstad & Glass (2002) - Testing such as the LAS serves to legitimitize the view that language is a problem and that many Spanish speakers have ‘no language’
Non-nons - Semilingualism
Semilingualism applied to literacy - bi-iliteracy

3. Literature Background
Almost exclusive reliance on English language reading research in the development of reading and assessment programs for emerging bilinguals (Bernhardt, 2003; Grant & Wong, 2003)
Belief that reading/writing processes in a second language parallel the first (Fitzgerald 1993, 1995)
Learning to read in English as a second language is the same for all language groups (Dubin, Eskey & Grabe, 1986).

4. Unexamined Assumptions..
‘Good teaching is good teaching’ (Universal programs based on English)
Reading in L2 is same as L1
Dismissal of L1 factors (e.g. Farsi/English and Spanish/English interact the same way)
Create the framework for discussing bi-iliteracy as a socially constructed category

5. Research Purpose
Examine teachers’ perceptions of the writing behaviors of students who are learning to read and write in both Spanish and English in an early exit ELA program.

6. Context and Setting Elementary School in Colorado (inner city)
‘ELA’ Early Exit Program
475 students
89% Latino
50% L1 Spanish
97% poverty

7. Getting ready for CSAP Reading instruction dominated the curriculum
Writing in English and Spanish were not a focus
Need to look at student writing to prepare for high stakes test
18 full-time teachers (12 bilingual - 6 native Spanish speakers - 1 with formal study in methods of teaching reading in Spanish)

8. Methods 110 writing samples gathered (fall/spring) - 4th and 5th grade
64 wrote in Spanish; 46 Spanish & English
Writing prompts - ‘The Best Birthday Ever’ - ‘If I could be Someone Else for a Day’
Developed scoring rubric based on six-traits
Structured 4 professional development sessions to discuss student writing
Professional development sessions and interviews examined teachers’ perceptions

9. Finding #1
Numeric outcomes provided empirical evidence for bi-iliteracy (my term)
Rubric - 5 point scale
Fall mean 2.6 Spanish; 2.2 English
Spring mean 3.2 Spanish; 3.0 English
Teachers concluded student writing skills in both Spanish and English were ‘low’

10. Reasons for bi-iliteracy
Rushed to English without ample time for L1 Spanish to develop
No focus on writing instruction
Children were poor, had limited life-experiences etc.
No one questioned the validity of the assessment tool

11. Finding #2
Teachers focused on student writing weaknesses rather than strengths in Spanish
Perceived weaknesses emphasized conventions, mechanics and organization rather than voice and content

12. Examples….
Policia – para ensenar alos niños sobre la biolensia para que se los fueran aprendiendo poco a poco sobre eso ….y para cuando se presente algun caso de que el esposo anda tomado y que golpio a su mujer y que se escape y se yebo a sus hijos dela casa. (Policeman – To teach children about violence so that they could be learning little by little about this…and so that when a case comes up where a husband is drunk and hits his wife so that she can escape and take the children).

13. Examples…..
Maestra – ayudaria a los niños de calle les hace falta comida, ropa y sapatos. Aunque yo no tubiera dinero lo consigueria para ayudarlos. (Teacher – to help the street children who do not have food, clothes or shoes. Even though I might not have money, I would look for some way to help them).

14. Finding #3 - Writing Issues in English were Attributed to Spanish
I would like to be Lisa Simpson. Lisa is my favorite cartoon character because is inteligent and so cool. She know everything in math and science. She never get mad at nobody she is so cool. I would like to help kids to finich the school. And help people that need a job.

15. Finding #4 - Teacher frustration
Abundance of staff-development in English, none in Spanish
No methodology classes in teaching literacy in Spanish
Not knowing when/how to teach Spanish language arts (e.g. accent rules)
Transition as criteria, point in time, not process

16. Finding #5 - Beyond bi-iliteracy - emerging biliteracy
Writing prompts - same but not equal
Learning to tell the difference between ‘normal development’ and negative transfer
Children had much to say about their world and focus on conventions and mechanics precluded our seeing what they know

19. Conclusions
Assessments, even holistic classroom based assessments, may serve to produce legitimate knowledge to justify student deficits. While unintentional, the writing assessment and rubric used in this study served to affirm preconceived notions that students were bi-iliterate - not literate in either Spanish or English.

20. Conclusions
“It is difficult to encounter discussions anywhere in the U.S. of developing policies that focus on developing bilingualism or biliteracy as either private or public asset including their potentially significant contribution to academic achievement.” (Black & Valenzuela, 2004)
In this environment, it is likely that non-English languages will continue to be viewed as problems to be remedied.

21. Conclusions
“The most pressing issue for reading instruction is the preparation of teachers to ensure that they have the knowledge or skill to diagnose and assess children’s progress. Assessment does not mean high stakes testing, but the everyday set of judgments that teachers make about the progress of individual children.” (Bernhardt, 2003).