1. HISTORY OF BIOMECHANICS
JENNIFER KLOTZ
OLGA THEOU
NICOLE WOOD
CHRIS DUNCAN
WON CHUNG

2. AGENDA Antiquity 650BC – 200AD Middle Ages 200AD – 1450AD
Italian Renaissance AD – 1600AD
Scientific Revolution AD – 1730AD
Enlightenment AD – 1800AD
The Gait century AD – 1900AD
The 20th century and beyond 1900AD - ….
Don’t worry I am not going to get too heavy with this but pick out some of the highlights.

3. Antiquity
650 B.C – 200 A.D
Histories of sciences usually begin with the ancient Greeks
Knowledge and myth were separated developing what we would call today “true scientific inquiry”
Observation to develop theories

4. Pythagoras
About 580 – 500 B.C
“…..all things have form, all things are form, and all things can be defined by numbers”
His definition of the universe and the human body were based on his mathematical analysis of music
Pythagoras’ famous theorem for rectangles and triangles: a² + b² = c²

5. Aristotle 384 – 322 B.C “Father of Kinesiology”
Every motion presupposed a mover
The motions of falling bodies and projectiles fascinated him
Average velocity of a falling body over a given distance is proportional to the weight of the falling body and inversely proportional to the density of the medium
His book “About the movement of Animals” described
Movement and locomotion for the first time
The first scientific analysis of gait
The first geometrical analysis of muscular action
Explained ground reaction forces “….for just as the pusher pushes, so the pusher is pushed”

6. Archimedes
B.C
He claimed that he would be able to move the Earth if he only had a place to stand in order to do so
He used a close approximation for π to measure volumes and areas of solids
He established statics and hydrostatics
He determined hydrostatic principles governing floating bodies that are still accepted in swimming today
He discovered the principle of water displacement while bathing
His inquires included the laws of leverage and determining the centre of gravity and the foundation of the oretical mechanics

7. Galen
A.D
First “sport physician” and “team doctor” in history – “Father of Sports Medicine”
For 4 years he practiced surgery and dietetics among the gladiators, gaining substantial knowledge of the human body and human motion
“On the function of the parts” – first text on physiology
Distinguished between skeletal muscles and muscle parts, such as the heart and the stomach
Described tonus and distinguished between motor and sensory nerves, agonist and antagonist muscles
Established the science of myology
He taught that muscular contraction resulted from the passage spiritus animalius from the brain through the nerves to the muscles

8. The Middle Ages

9. When and What? 200 B.C. – 1450 A.D. Also known as the “Dark Ages”
Scientific development decreased
Religious and spiritual development increased
Arab scholars saved scientific investigations of antiquity from disappearing completely
The only type of knowledge desired was the knowledge of God

10. Connection to Biomechanics

11. Italian Renaissance

12. When and What?
1450 A.D. – 1600 A.D.
The authority of the Church replaced with the authority of the ancients (Less fear of the church)
Period characterized by freedom of thought and intellectual adventure
Revival of ancient Greek philosophy, literature and art
Man became the “measure of all things”

13. Biomechanics Connection
Scientific work revived
Foundations laid for future work in anatomy and physiology
Movement and muscle actions were studied as connected entities

14. The Major Players Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
Andreas Vesalius ( )

15. Leonardo da Vinci Self taught man
Best known as an artist but primarily served as an engineer
A very talented and imaginative man; inventions include the tank, helicopter, parachute, steam cannon, and hang glider.

16. Contributions to Biomechanics
Had the unique ability to communicate dynamic human movement in visual form

17. Contributions con’t
Mechanical analysis of movement included joints, muscles, bones, ligaments, tendons, and cartilage
Most successful illustrations included the anatomy of the arm, elbow, and hand

18. Contributions con’t
Depicted correctly the muscles (threads) by demonstrating their origin and insertion points as well as the mechanical action of the muscle dependent on its shape

19. Contributions con’t
Fused art and science by stressing perspective in his illustrations, accurately depicted ball and socket joints (hip and shoulder) as well as the correct shape of the pelvis

20. Vesalius Education vastly contrasted da Vinci’s
Received formal training in medicine and eventually became a physician
Taught and published his anatomical theories

21. Vesalius Continued
Originally a proponent of Galen, he noticed contradictions in his work
Convinced Galen’s work was dissections of animals and wrongly portrayed the human body
Dissected executed criminals

22. Contributions to Biomechanics
In 1543 published De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem (On the Structure of the Human Body)
Boldly stated that human anatomy could only be learned from dissection and observation of the human body
Re-evaluated the anatomy of muscles (human muscles differ from animal muscles)
Stimulated scientific debate between the relationship of nerves and muscles (muscles attached to tendons and embraced nerve fibers)
His detailed descriptive anatomy laid the foundation for modern day anatomy.

26. Scientific Revolution 1600-1730
Galileo, Santorio, Harvey, Descartes, Boreli, Newton
Science was supported by private and political institutions
Intellectual freedom was highly respected
Scientists from different European countries made contact with each other
**Experimentation became the cornerstone of the new Scientific Method

27. Who is this?
“If I have been able to see further it was because I stood on the shoulders of Giants” Newton

28. Galileo Galilei “The Wrangler” (1564-1642)
University of Pisa to study medicine
He could not accept what professors told him on faith.
University of Padua to study mathematics
He focused on experimentation
Telescope

29. Galileo & Biomechanics
Mechanical aspects of bone structure and allometry
Animals’ mass h disproportionately to their size. Therefore bones’ girth must h
Marine animals vs. terrestrial animals
Buoyancy relieves tissues of weight

30. Disproved Aristotle’s doctrine of falling bodies
Impossible that the rate of falling is a function of the object’s weight. Gravity?
Most fundamental contribution to science:
Scientific Method
Need to examine facts critically and reproduce known phenomenon experimentally so as to determine cause & effect for what is observed.

31. Galileo in Today’s Biomechanics
Aquatic PT
“water’s buoyancy relieves tissues of weight”
Provided Foundation for Newton’s 3 laws
Theory of uniform motion, projectiles, inclined plane, and he defined momentum

32. ? ( )

33. Rene Descartes’ Contributions
Cartesian Coordinate System
The Legend is that he invented this system while lying in bed observing a fly in the corner of his room

34. Contributions cont.
One of the first to use a mathematical approach to analyzing mechanics & applied it to the human body
Theory of inertia
Related the fact that motion continues in a straight line unless acted on by an external force, to the motion of planet

35. Who is this?

36. Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (1608-1679)
Began as Galileo’s student in Rome
Became Math teacher in Messina, Pisa, & Florence
Co-developer of “iatrophysical” approach to medicine
Mechanics, not chemistry, is key to understanding the functioning of the human body
Discovered forces required for equilibrium in various joints of the body before Newtown developed his laws
Determined human’s COG
Calculated inspiration and expiration volumes

37. Borelli
One of the first men to understand that the levers of the musculoskeletal system magnify motion rather than force

38. “Father of Biomechanics”
De Motu Animalium
Published after 1679
Contents:
Used geometrical method to describe jumping, running, flying, swimming, etc.
Gait analysis & analysis of muscles
Muscle function in specific joints (knee)
Influence of muscle fibers for force production

39. Findings Hypothesized in Treatise
“Jumping”
Proposition CLXXVIII:
In jumping at an inclination to the horizon, the trajectory of the jump is parabolic
Proposition CLXXIX:
Why a jump during running is longer and higher

40. Does anyone know who this is? (1642 – 1727)

41. Isaac Newton & the “Principia”
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
Book I:
Science & mechanics
3 Laws (Inertia, accleration, & action-reaction)
Book II:
New scientific philosophies
Descartes & Kepler
Book III:
Applications of his dynamics
Law of gravitation

42. Newton’s Laws Law of Inertia Law of Acceleration
A body will remain at rest or continue to move at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force
Law of Acceleration
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force causing it, it is in the same direction as the fore, and it is inversely proportional to its mass
Law of action-reaction
For every action there exists an equal and opposite reaction
Universal Gravitation
All objects attract each other with gravitational force that is inversely proportional to the square of the distance b/n the objects
This force of gravity is proportional to the mass of each of the two bodies being attracted to each other

43. Putting the Puzzle Together
Pieces of the Puzzle:
Galileo’s law of falling bodies & projectiles
Descartes’ law of inertia
Galileo failed to mention a driving force in his theory
Descartes’ theory mentioned straight lines, but the planets do not move in a straight line

44. THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT (1730 AD – 1800 AD)
Period of increased understanding
Mechanical philosophers - mathematicians
Causes of motion disagreed
The concept of force more clearly understood
Advances in chemistry and a new approach to physiology

45. Daniel Bernoulli
Born: 8 Feb 1700 in Groningen, Netherlands Died: 17 March 1782 in Basel, Switzerland
Family of mathematicians
Hydrodynamica
Bernoulli’s principle

46. Bernoulli’s principle
A rise (fall) in pressure in a flowing fluid must always be accompanied by a decrease (increase) in the speed, and conversely, if an increase (decrease) in , the speed of the fluid results in a decrease (increase) in the pressure.

47. Bernoulli’s principle

48. Albrecht von Haller Born: 16 October 1708 in Bern, Switzerland
Died: 07 December 1777
A prodigy
The founder on neurology

49. Gait Century

50. When and What?
1800 A.D. – 1900 A.D.
Period of time where a complementary development of mind and body was reborn (Rousseau’s novel Emile, 1762), sport and movement ideal form
Development of sport and leisure during the late 18th Century created a renewed scientific interest in human locomotion
The 19th Century was a period of development and discovery of instruments and experimental methods to increase knowledge of human movement
Gait Analysis

51. Biomechanics Connection
Measuring methods developed to quantify kinematics and kinetics of movement
Measuring methods developed to quantify electrical current during muscular contractions
Engineering principles applied in biological and biomechanical analysis
Transformation of biomechanics from an observational science to one based on quantification and mathematical analysis

52. The Major Players Etienne Jules Marey (1838-1904)
Edweard Muybridge ( )
Du Bois Reymond ( /1922?)
Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne ( )

53. Jules Marey
Greatly influenced the development of biomechanics by providing the ability to quantify movements and by his rigorous scientific nature
He was the first to combine and synchronize kinematics and force measurement (inspired comprehensive locomotion analysis)
Analyzed movement of adults and children during sport and work as well as the movements of animals (facility devoted to biomechanics research)
Variety of his data collection inspired others to adapt and create devices for the quantification of motion

54. Marey’s Contributions
Correlated ground reaction forces with movement (dynamometric table; first serious force plate)
Developed technology to record sequential motion at high speeds (rifle camera)
Invented the “Chronophotographe a pellicule” or modern cinecamera (frame by frame analysis)
Pioneer or modern day motion analysis

55. Marey’s Work

56. Edweard Muybridge
Began career in locomotion studying horses for Leland Stanford (Stanford University)
His contribution to biomechanics is the sheer number of images he produced documenting movement
Produced over 20,000 images later published in Animals in Locomotion and The Human Figure in Motion
Muybridge lacked a scientific methodology

57. Muybridge’s Work

58. Wilhelm Braune and Otto Fischer
In 1891 made precise mathematical analysis possible by conducting the first tri-dimensional analysis of human gait
Experimental method of determining center of gravity; concluded that the original position of frozen cadavers could be considered a normal one

59. Du Bois Reymond and Duchenne
Laid the foundations of electromyography
Du Bois Reymond refined methods for measuring currents and traced electricity in contracting muscles to its independent fibers
Duchenne developed electrodes that could stimulate the superficial muscles
Duchenne published Physiologie des Mouvements which described the muscle action of every important superficial muscle

60. Duchene's Inventions

61. 20th Century Kinesiology Era vs. Biomechanics Era Kinesiology Era
Scholars
Textbooks/Curriculum
Research/Instrumentation
Biomechanics Era
Graduate Programs
Other 20th Century Research
Biomechanics Seminar/Congress/Journal

62. Kinesiology Era vs. Biomechanics Era
“…Spans the first 6 decades of the 20th Century and represents the infancy of biomechanics”
Biomechanics Era
Begins in the 1960’s to the present
Biomechanics begins to branch away from Kinesiology and become its own discipline
Graduate programs begin in universities and creation of scholarly societies
New research and development

63. Kinesiology Era: Scholars
Arthur Steindler, MD ( )
1930’s: taught graduate level Kinesiology classes at the University of Iowa
1935: his lectures and notes are compiled together in a book, Mechanics of Normal and Pathological Locomotion in Man
1st to use term “biomechanics” in physical education text
1942: has article in JOHPER advocating the application of biomechanics to study human movement and made strong arguments for the following questions:
can human movement be expressed in mathematical formula?
If it can be analyzed with math, can it be of practical benefit?
Ruth B. Glassow ( )
1924: hired to teach Kinesiology courses at University Illinois
Designed new course in which students classified movement patterns and applied them to basic mechanical principals
1932: Fundamental of Physical Education textbook
Pioneer in use of motion picture to analyze human movement in physical education
Pioneer in tests and measurements
1938: Glassow & Broer write Measuring Achievement in Physical Education

64. Kinesiology Era: Scholars
Marion Broer ( )
1936 & 1937: spoke about the phases of human motion and body mechanics related to posture at the Central & Midwest Health and Physical Education & Recreation meeting
Primary interests: fundamental movement patterns, efficiency of motion, and application of mechanical principles to movement patterns
1960: wrote textbook, Efficiency of Human Movement
Strongest premise: a generality in the mechanics of movement existed and needed to be learned by the student of movement
Broer is still teaching exercise and the application of mechanics to daily movement to senior citizens

65. Kinesiology Era: Texts/Curriculum
1909: Gymnastic Kinesiology (William Skarstrom, MD)
First scientific textbook
Primary emphasis: structural/functional aspects of the human body
1912: The Action of Muscles in Bodily Movement and Posture (Wilbur Bowen)
Dealt with structural aspects of skeletal, nervous, & muscular systems with application to gymnastics, industrial movements, and some sport movements
1935: Mechanics of Normal & Pathological Locomotion in Man (Arthur Steindler)
1st formal presentation of basic info. on the application of mechanics to internal structures of the body as well as references to external mechanics such as balance, Newton’s Law of Motion, COG, and calculations of external force
1942: Analysis of Human Motion: A Textbook in Kinesiology (M. Gladys Scott)
Benchmark for current framework of undergrad. Kinesiology courses that exist today
Most comprehensive and understandable text at that time

66. Kinesiology Era: Research/Instrumentation
Motion picture photography (Muybridge and Marey)
COG and description of body as segmental organic links (Wilhelm Braun & Otto Fischer)
Fundamental to understanding of all resistive forces involved in human movement
Wallace O. Fenn: 1st published biomechanical research studies that set the standard for analysis
Used motion pics in calculating velocity, kinetic energy, and muscular power while working with the Eastman Kodak Company

67. Biomechanics Era: Texts/Curriculum
Starting in the 1960’s, more universities were requiring an undergraduate Kinesiology course as part of their core curriculum
In response to the differences between the terms “kinesiology” and “biomechanics.” the Kinesiology Academy appointed a task force to develop guidelines for undergraduate Kinesiology courses:
“Guidelines and Standards for Undergraduate Kinesiology,” edited by Kathryn Luttgens & published in Feb 1980 edition of JOPER, included the following standards/areas of focus:
Structural and functional aspects of the NM systme
Mechanical application to human movement
Qualitative application to human movement

68. Biomechanics as a graduate specialization
1960’s: term “biomechanics” recognized as a graduate specialization
Louis Alley: article about the design of a graduate program that trained specialists in the mechanics of human movement
Richard Nelson: Penn St, 1964: established a lab for biomechanical research (1st to be identified by the term “biomechanics”)
John Cooper: Indiana University, 1960’s: graduate program and research lab
At this time, most graduate experience was coursework and descriptive research utilizing methods of cinematography and electromyography

69. Biomechanics Era: Research/Instrumentation
Most important: incorporation of the digital computer to collection and analysis of biomechanical data
1970’s: primary focus was instrumentation
Cinematography: design of the LoCam 16-mm motion picture camera which permitted film rates up to 500 frames per second
Allowed for accuracy of frame rate and small enough to take into the field for on-site research
Kistler forceplate to measure forces
3D cinematography: more realistic
Electronic digitizer
1980’s:
data analysis systems that permit the automatic tracking of reflective markers placed on the body
New systems for measuring pressure distribution between the foot and shoe have advanced research in kinetics

70. APX Fastcam by Image Diagnostics, Ltd.
Up to 2,000 fps with full resolution 1,024 by 1,024 pixel resolution

71. 20th Century Researchers
Nicholas Bernstein ( )
1920’s-1940’s in Soviet Union
Developed method for measuring movement based on mathematical analysis
“biodynamic” studies included proper use of tools such as the hammer and saw
Not published in N. American until 1967
Elftman
1938 &1939-quantified internal forces in muscles and joints
Developed a force plate to quantify ground reaction forces and the center of pressure under the foot during gait
Found that muscles act by using transmission, absorption, release, and dissipation strategies

73. Societies ACSM - American College of Sports Medicine
ANZSB - Australian and New Zealand Society of Biomechanics
ASB - American Society of Biomechanics
Biomechanics Section of BASES - British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences
Biomechanic World Wide
Biomechanics Yellow Pages
CSB - Canadian Society for Biomechanics (en français)
DGfB - Deutsche Gesellschaft für Biomechanik (German Society of Biomechanics)
ESB - European Society of Biomechanics
ESMAC - European Society for Movement Analysis in Adults and Children
GCMAS - Gait and Clinical Movement Analysis Society
ISB - International Society of Biomechanics
ISB Technical Group on Computer Simulation (TGCS)
ISB Technical Group on Footwear Biomechanics
ISB Technical Group on the 3-D Analysis of Human Movement
International Shoulder Group
ISBS - International Society of Biomechanics in Sports
ISPGR - International Society for Posture and Gait Research
SB - Société de biomécanique
SCB - Société canadienne de biomécanique (in English)

74. First International Seminar on Biomechanics
August 21-23, 1967 in Zurich, Switzerland
Discussed topics such as: technique of motion studies, telemetry, principle of human motion studies, & applied biomechanics in work, sport, and clinical aspects
During the 1973 conference in Penn State, the ISB (Internat’l Society for Biomechanics) was founded by J. Wartenweiler.
At the 1975 conference, ISB changed to ICB (Internat’l Congress for Biomechanics)-which is the name still used today

75. First World Congress of Biomechanics
1989 in San Diego
Chairman- Y.C. Fung
Biomechanics started to develop sub-disciplines in the 1980’s (i.e., locomotion, orthopaedic, sport, muscle, material, tissue, dental, cardiac, etc.
Congress allowed biomechanists from these disciplines to meet periodically to exchange ideas and findings

76. ISB International Society of Biomechanics August 30, 1973
International Society of biomechanics 20th Congress August 1-5, 2005 Cleveland, OH, USA
Membership
Full AUD
Student AUD
Emeritus AUD

77. ISBS The International Society of Biomechanics in Sports
June 20-25, 1982
ISBS Journal “Sports Biomechanics”
23rd Symposium 2005 Beijing, China
Membership fee is
Full members €52
Students €42

78. ASB American Society of biomechanics October, 1977
September 8-11, 2004 American Society of Biomechanics Annual Meeting Portland, OR, USA 
Membership fee is
Full members €40
Students €15

79. SCCB Southern California Conference on Biomechanics
The Southern California Conference on Biomechanics is held to achieve the following purposes.
To foster the professional development of graduate and undergraduate students in biomechanics and provide these students an opportunity to present their research to the biomechanics community.
To increase collaboration and the exchange of knowledge among biomechanics programs in the greater Southern California area. 
To promote biomechanics throughout the greater Southern California area. 
March 28-29, 2003 Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA
No registration fees for conference attendance

80. Conferences
2004
4th International Conference on Strength Training November 3-7 Serres, Greece
9th World congress on Osteoarthritis December 2-5 Chicago, IL, USA
2005
17th Conference of the International Society for Postural and Gait Research May 29 - June 2 Marseille, France
Summer Bioengineering Conference June Vail, CO, USA
2006
5th World congress of Biomechanics July 26 - August , Munich, Germany

81. Journals Journal of Biomechanics Journal of Applied Biomechanics
Clinical Biomechanics
Journal of Electromyographic Kinesiology

82. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Miscellaneous
Elsevier Science
Biorheology, Bone, Biorheology Brain Research, Bulletin of Mathematical Biology, Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, Computerized Medical Imaging and Graphics, Computers in Biology and Medicine, Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, Gait and Posture ,Human Movement Science, Injury, Isokinetics and Exercise Science, Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation, Journal of Orthopaedic Research, The Knee Mathematical Biosciences, Medical Engineering and Physics, Neuromuscular Disorders  
Human Kinetics
Journal of Applied Biomechanics Jobs and Careers, Biomechanics Gateway Page 
IOS Press
Technology and Health Care   
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise   
Miscellaneous
BioMechanics Magazine, Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering, Ergonomics Australia On-Line, Journal of Medical Engineering and Technology, Journal of Theoretical Medicine, BMES Bulletin - Biomedical Engineering Society, Sports Biomechanics 

83. Future Biomechanics has grown from infancy to adolescence
If biomechanics continues to grow at the same rate as previously seen then the future of this discipline is limitless
Technological developments will impact the methodologies and instrumentation of biomechanics
“The days of measurement, description, and data are smoothing over”
The future biomechanics will know what is “normal” and what is “optimal”

85. Video

86. Question 1
Who is the father of Kinesiology?
Aristotle

88. Question 2
Who wrote the famous treatise “De motu Animanium”?
Borelli

90. Question 3
Rise in pressure in a flowing fluid must be accompanied by decrease or increase in the speed?
Decrease

92. Question 4
Who invented the “chronophotographe” frame by frame analysis?
Marey

94. What are the 3 standards/areas of focus for undergraduate Kinesiology?
Question 5
What are the 3 standards/areas of focus for undergraduate Kinesiology?
Structural function aspects of NM system
Mechanical application to human movement
Qualitative application to human movement

96. Past-Present-Future

97. References
McGinnis, M.P. (1999). Biomechanics of sport and exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Massengale, J.D., Swanson, R.A. (1997). The history of Exercise and Sport Science. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Galileo.imiss.firenze.it/museo/b/eborell.htm
Asb-biomech.org/history/biomechanics
Webvision.med.utah.edu/imageswv/descartes.jpeg

98.
Adami, Mimi Rodriguez. Aquatic Fitness (2002)

99. www.hao.ucar.edu/.../ sp/images/aristotle.html
archimedes/
ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/.../ page5.html
mcdb.colorado.edu/.../ lectures/class17-1.html