Prenatal Development And Birth

Prenatal Development And Birth
12 Prenatal Development And Birth Social and Personality Development in Adolescence This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
Theories of Social and Personality Development Psychoanalytic Perspectives Freud Genital Stage Channel libido into a healthy sexual relationship Marriage and procreation represent healthy outcomes. Fixation in a prior stage leads to deviance or dysfunction. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Psychoanalytic Perspectives Erickson Identity versus Role Confusion Identity reflects an understanding of one’s unique characteristics and how they are manifested across ages, situations, and social roles. Identity crisis Troubled by lack of identity Identification with peer groups protects against emotional turmoil Role confusion results from the inability to have an integrated view of self. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Marcia’s Theory of Identity Achievement Identity formation has two key parts Crisis Period of decision-making when old values and old choices are reexamined. Commitment Follow some specific role, value, goal, or ideology Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Figure 12.1

Marcia’s Theory of Identity Achievement Identity Statuses Identity Achievement Moratorium Foreclosure Identity Diffusion Identity achievement – both crisis and commitment have been processed. Moratorium – currently experiencing crisis but no commitment has been made. Foreclosure – commitment without crisis; accepted parental or culturally defined commitment. Identity Diffusion – no crisis or commitment. The quest for personal identity continues throughout the lifespan with alternating periods of instability and stability. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Self-Concept and Personality Self-Understanding More abstract definition of psychological self Comprised of enduring traits, beliefs, personal philosophy, and moral standards Able to see oneself in different roles Academic self-concepts come from internal comparisons and external comparisons. Social self-concepts predict behavior. See Figure 12.2 (page 322) Different roles as a student than with friends, with parents, with romantic partners, etc. Academic self-concepts come from internal comparisons and external comparisons. Internal comparison – to a self-generated ideal. External comparison – to peer performance. Social self-concepts predict behavior. The perceived lack of competency in family relations appears to be distinct from other components of self-concept. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Figure 12.2

Self-Concept and Personality Sex-Role Identity Understand sex roles as social conventions Masculine Feminine Androgynous Undifferentiated Parental attitudes and parental behavior become increasingly important in shaping teens’ ideas about gender and sex roles. Masculine and Feminine are not polar opposites, but dimensions along a continuum. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Figure 12.3

Self-Concept and Personality Self-Esteem Androgynous or a masculine sex-role identity is associated with high self-esteem. Cross-cultural research suggests that adopting androgynous or masculine roles can lead to lower self-esteem for girls. Overall, self-esteem tends to rise through the adolescent years. High self-esteem is associated with positive developmental outcomes such as good grades and resisting peer pressure. Girls outnumber boys in low self-esteem. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Self-Concept and Personality Ethnic Identity Self-identification as a member of their specific group Often poorly supported by dominate culture Family support and teaching helps form a strong sense of ethnic identity. Jean Phinney’s 3 stages of ethnic identity formation Unexamined ethnic identity Ethnic identity search Clear ethnic identity Ethnic Identity Self-identification as a member of their specific group, Commitment to that group and its values and attitudes, Development of some attitudes about the group which they belong. Jean Phinney’s 3 stages of ethnic identity formation Unexamined ethnic identity – includes negative images and stereotypes common in the wider culture and how his own group is perceived by the majority culture. Ethnic identity search – triggered by some experience that makes ethnicity relevant. Clear ethnic identity – resolution of conflicts and contradictions. Some choose their own ethnic group pattern exclusively. Others choose a bicultural identity – consistently flow between the ethnic and majority culture. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Locus of Control and other Traits Locus of control External locus believes the causes of problems are something outside himself. Associated with procrastination and poor academic performance Often accompanies low self-esteem, introversion, and neuroticism Uses avoidant coping when faced with problems Internal locus believes in personal variables such as ability and effort. Completes tasks and succeeds in school Optimistic outlook Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Social Relationships Relationships with parents Conflicts Center around everyday issues Only 5 – 10% of families experience substantial deterioration of the parent–child relationship. Individual traits and cultural factors affect the degree and meaning of parent–teen conflict. Rise in conflicts with parents in adolescence. Center around everyday issues such as chores or personal rights. Hairstyles, dating, and amount of parental supervision. Parent-teen conflicts appear to cause more stress for parents than for teens. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Relationships with Parents Attachment Remains strong during adolescence Teenager’s sense of well-being or happiness is more strongly correlated with the quality of attachment to parents than to peers. Strong attachments are associated with academic success and good peer relations. See Figure 12.4 (page 330) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Relationships with Parents Parenting Styles Authoritative parenting is consistently associated with positive outcomes. Parental acceptance helps teens to develop realistic assessments of academic abilities. Parents who are more involved have teens who are more likely to attend college. See Figure 12.4 (page 330) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Relationships with Parents Family Structure Step-parent families are somewhat less well-adjusted. During adolescence, girls show more distress when parents divorce. Have difficulty living with a stepfather More likely to be depressed More likely than boys to be using drugs See Figure 12.4 (page 330) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Figure 12.4

Relationships with Peers Friendships Shared interests and activities continue to be important. Friendships become increasingly intimate. Share more inner feelings and secrets More knowledgeable about each other’s feelings Teens vary considerably in the interpersonal skills needed to maintain friendships. Reasons for ending friendships reflect differences in rate of development of social skills. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Relationships with Peers Peer Groups Relatively stable in adolescence Peer group pressure is less potent than cultural stereotypes depict. Teens report that when explicit peer pressure is exerted, it is likely towards positive activities. Exception seems to be “druggie-tough crowds” Explicit pressure toward misconduct Teens motivated to show toughness Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Relationships with Peers Changes in peer group structure Clique – 4 to 6 young people who appear to be strongly attached to one another Early years cliques are same-sex. Crowds – larger sets that include males and females Break down into heterosexual cliques and then into loose associations of couples Crowds are popular between 13 and 15. Reputation-based group – teen identifies with group either by choice or by peer designation. Crowds are popular between 13 and 15 at the time when the teen is most likely to display the greatest conformity to peer pressure. Modern research adds: Reputation-based group - teen identifies with group either by choice or by peer designation. Jocks, brains, dweebs, druggies, preppies are examples. These provide an identity prototype – labeling others and oneself as belonging to a group helps to create or reinforce the adolescent’s own identity. It also identifies friends or foes. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Relationships with Peers Romantic Relationships Proceed at a faster pace for girls than for boys. Skills gained in relating to opposite-sex peers in friendships and mixed groups prepare them for romantic relationships. Social competence in a variety of relationships prepares teens to move to romantic relationships. Preparation for assuming a full adult sexual identity Physical sexuality coupled with skills in personal intimacy The sense of being in love is an important factor in adolescent dating patterns. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Questions to Ponder Did you have a best friend or friends when growing up? Was your group of friends like what those described by research? Were your grade school friends important to you? What stage of identity development, as described by Marcia, have you achieved? Why? How does one get to identity achievement? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Homosexuality 1% of adolescent boys and 0.4% of adolescent girls define themselves as homosexuals. Twin studies show when one identical twin is homosexual, the probability that the other will be is 50 –60%. Family studies suggest male homosexuality runs in families. Such findings strengthen a biological basis hypothesis for homosexuality. 1% of adolescent boys and 0.4% of adolescent girls define themselves as homosexuals. A larger number suggested they were unsure of their sexual orientation. (1994) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Homosexuality Programmed at birth hypothesis Prenatal hormone patterns may be a causal factor in homosexuality. Long bones in arms and legs of homosexual school age children do not grow as fast as those of heterosexuals. Early strong cross-sex play preferences in boys is associated with homosexual preferences in adolescence. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Homosexuality Realization of homosexuality appears to be gradual. May begin in middle childhood Homosexual fantasies begin in teen years. Full awareness and acceptance of one’s homosexuality appears to take place in early adulthood. Slow process may lead to isolation and feelings of being unaccepted by peers May lead to depression and attempted suicide Schools may need to provide emotional and social support for homosexual teens. Homosexual adolescents face concerns in developing identity similar to those of other teens. 1% of adolescent boys and .4% of adolescent girls define themselves as homosexuals. A larger number suggested they were unsure of their sexual orientation. (1994) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Moral Development Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning Preconventional reasoning Judgments are based on sources of authority — usually parents. Stage 1 – punishment and obedience orientation Stage 2 – individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange See Table 12.2 (page 336) and Figure 12.5 (page 337) and Table 12.3 (page 337). Preconventional reasoning Level 1 – judgments are based on sources of authority – usually parents. The outcome or consequence of an action determines the rightness or wrongness of the action. Stage 1 – punishment and obedience orientation: Physical consequences determine right or wrong – if he is punished, it’s wrong. Stage 2 – individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange: You should do things that are rewarded and avoid things that are punished. naïve hedonism: If you help me, I’ll help you. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Moral Development Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning Conventional reasoning Judgments are based on rules or norms of a group to which the individual belongs. Stage 3 – Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity Stage 4 – Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange See Table 12.2 (page 336) and Figure 12.5 (page 337) and Table 12.3 (page 337). Conventional reasoning Judgments are based on rules or norms of a group to which the individual belongs. Stage 3 – Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity. Sometimes called good boy/nice girl stage. Good behavior is what pleases other people. They value loyalty, respect, trust, and maintenance of mutual relationships. Stage 4 – Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange. Norms of a large reference group – the stage of social systems or conscience. Adhering to a complex set of regulations. Morality and legality are equivalent. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Moral Development Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning Postconventional reasoning Judgments are based on emergence of a personal authority. Stage 5 – Social contracts orientation Stage 6 – The universal ethical principles orientation See Table 12.2 (page 336) and Figure 12.5 (page 337) and Table 12.3 (page 337). Postconventional reasoning Judgments are based on emergence of a personal authority. Stage 5 – Social contracts orientation. Rules, laws, and regulations ensure fairness. Laws may need to be ignored to ensure fairness. Civil disobedience – deliberately breaking laws that were believed to be immoral are examples. Stage 6 – The universal ethical principles orientation. Explains moral decisions based on universal ethical principles such as right to life. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Figure 12.5

Causes and Consequences of Moral Development Age and the correlating cognitive development are needed to progress from stage to stage. Role-taking improves an adolescent’s ability to reason from another’s perspective. Support from the social environment is needed to sustain moral reasoning. Growth of moral reasoning is associated with increases in adolescent prosocial behaviors and decreases in antisocial behavior. Longitudinal research relating parenting styles and family climate to moral reasoning suggest that Kohlberg is right about the need for social support. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Culture and Moral Reasoning Approach too narrow to be considered universal Non-Western cultures do not fit in well with Kohlberg’s approach. Justice is an important moral concept around the world. Justice does not supercede all other moral considerations in non-Western cultures. Example – respect for elders is essentially more important than justice in some cultures. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Moral Reasoning and Emotions Nancy Eisenberg Empathy – the ability to identify with others emotions is both a cause and consequence of moral development Age-related and individual differences in ability to regulate emotions should be considered. Inability to control emotions triggers antisocial behaviors. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Moral Reasoning and Emotions Carol Gilligan Ethics based on caring for others and on maintaining social relationships are important. Justice and care are two prominent orientations. Girls are more likely to reason based on care orientation. Recent research of sex differences suggests a North American bias. Gilligan notes two distinct moral orientations – justice and care. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Moral Reasoning and Behavior Theories do not predict the differences between moral reasoning and moral behavior. Neither adolescents nor adults reason the same way in every situation. Situational factors may determine actual behavior. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Moral Development and Antisocial Behavior Delinquency Adolescent behavior that breaks laws Serious forms, such as rape and murder, are on the rise Delinquents are far behind peers in moral reasoning because of deficits in role-taking skills. Childhood-onset problems are more serious and more likely to persist into adulthood. Temperament and personality play a role. Parents who fail at early attempts to control bad behavior may worsen the behaviors. Delinquent adolescents may exhibit serious disturbances in thinking. Adolescent-onset problems typically reflect peer-group influences. Negatives associated childhood-onset problems include: displays of overt aggression; rejection by peers; support from other delinquents; parents with histories of antisocial behaviors; likely to use drugs and alcohol; truancy and dropping out of school; and early and risky sexual behaviors. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Prenatal Development And Birth
12 Prenatal Development And Birth End Show This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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