1. By: Abdullah Azhari Badar Al Lawati
Descriptive Research
By: Abdullah Azhari
Badar Al Lawati
CSC Descriptive Research

2. Definitions
Descriptive research: is a study designed to depict the participants in an accurate way.
More simply: descriptive research is all about describing people who take part in the study
CSC Descriptive Research

3. Types of Descriptive Research
Observational: defined as a method of viewing and recording the participants
Correlational: defined as a study of the relation between two or more characteristics
Developmental Research: defined as a study of how a particular characteristics changes as people grow older.
Survey: defined as a brief interview or discussion with an individual about a specific topic
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4. Descriptive Research: Observational
Observes the situation as it is without changing or modifying the situation
Involves planning, attention to detail, time consuming, & requires multiple researches (assistants)
Two types: Quantitative & Qualitative
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5. Quantitative Vs Qualitative
Qualitative: record observations in details (using notes, videotapes)  construct a complex picture of the studied environment
Quantitative: Only certain aspects of the elements studied are being recorded (certain human behaviors)  rated for accuracy, intensity, maturity, etc.
Always stay objective
CSC Descriptive Research

6. Stay Objective Define the behavior being studied precisely
Divide the observation period into measurable segments (to observe the behavior occurrences)
Use a rating scale to evaluate the behavior in specific dimensions
Include multiple people to observe the the behavior occurrences
Train the raters to use specific criteria while observing the the behavior occurrences
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7. Descriptive Research: Correlation Research
Examines the extent to which differences in one characteristics or variable are related to differences in one or more other characteristics or variables
It exists if one variable increases, the other variable increases or decreases in (somehow) predictable fashion
Researchers collect two or more characteristics for a particular unit of study
Note: Correlation doesn’t infer a causation relationship between the characteristics
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8. Developmental Research Design
A study of how a particular characteristics changes as people grow older.
Cross-Sectional Study: People from several different age-groups are sampled and compared (correlational study)
Different environment conditions
Can’t compute correlation between characteristics at different ages
Longitude Study: A single group of people is followed over the course of several months or years, and data related to the characteristics studied are collected over time.
Losing participants over time
Better performance: practice
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9. Developmental Research Design
Overcome the problems by: Cohort-Sequential Design
Researcher begins with two or more age groups and follow each age-group over a period of time
Disadvantages:
Require long time
Finding same age groups with similar characteristics is hard
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10. Descriptive Research: Survey
Involves acquiring information about one or more groups of people by asking them questions and documenting their answers
A list of questions is created
Questions are answered by participants
A summery of responses is created (in percentages)
Statistical analysis is performed
Inferences are made based on the analysis
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11. Interviews Vs Questionnaires
Structured or Semi Structured
Face-to-Face Interviews
Make a list and meet them
Expensive & time consuming
Telephone Interviews
Literally call anyone on earth
Less expensive & time consuming
Less response rate
Questionnaires
Sent to massive number of people
Cheaper but low response rate
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12. Planning for Data Collection
Interested in measuring one or more variables
Simple variables (length, weight, etc.)
Complex variables (people’s opinion, people’s reaction, etc.)
Practical Applications:
Using Checklists & Rating Scales
Computerizing Observations
Planning & Conducting Interviews in Quantitative Study
Constructing & Administrating a Questionnaire
Using the Internet to Collect Data for a Descriptive Study
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13. Practical Applications: Using Checklists & Rating Scales
Checklist: list of behaviors or characteristics for which a researcher is looking to study.
Usually documented in yes/no or observed/not observed during the period of the study
Rating Scales: developed by Rensis Likert, and sometimes called the Likert Scales
Usually used to evaluate the feeling/behavior of people on a continuum (like: “Never” or “Always”, “Strongly Disagree” or “Strongly Agree”)
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14. Practical Applications: Using Checklists & Rating Scales
CSC Descriptive Research

15. Practical Applications: Computerizing Observations
Using Computer Applications to record the answers
Spreadsheet or template in a document
Simple checklists with participant ID and X for the checked items
Use tablets or mobile scanning devices to record the responses instead of pencil & paper
Google docs or Surveymonkey.com are good examples
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16. Practical Applications: Planning & Conducting Interviews in Quantitative Study
More than just asking questions
Should be carefully planned and worded
Setup the interview questions in advance
Send the agenda of questions to the interviewee
Ask for permission to record the interview (sound or video)
Confirm the date and time at the begging of the interview
Send a reminder of the questions 10 days before the interview
Be prompt, follow the agenda, be prepared with extra copies
Offer acknowledgment after the interview/obtain confirmation
Get written permission from interviewees prior to publishing
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17. Practical Applications: Constructing & Administrating a Questionnaire
Not as easy as it seems, can be tricky
Majority of the cases deal with low return rates
Tips on how to construct a successful questionnaire:
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18. Practical Applications: Constructing & Administrating a Questionnaire
Keep it short
Keep the respondent’s task simple & concrete
Provide straightforward, specific instructions
Use simple, clear, unambiguous language
Give a rationale for any items whose purpose maybe unclear
Check for unwarranted assumptions implicit in your questions
Word your questions in ways that don’t give clues about a desired response
Determine in advance how you will code the responses
Check for consistency
Conduct at least 1 pilot study to validate your questions
Scrutinize the almost final product one more time
Make the questionnaire attractive and professional looking
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19. Practical Applications: Constructing & Administrating a Questionnaire
Using technology to facilitate Questionnaires:
Use to request participation and obtain participants’ responses
If you use paper mail delivery rather than , use a processing program to personalize your correspondence
Use a computer database to keep track of who has responded and who has not
Use a scanner to facilitate data tabulation
When participants are in the same location that you are, administer the questionnaire directly on a computer
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20. Practical Applications: Constructing & Administrating a Questionnaire
Maximizing the return rate for a questionnaire:
Consider the timing
Make a good first impression
Motivate potential respondents
If mailing the questionnaire, include pre-paid return envelope
Offer the results of your study
Be gently persistent
CSC Descriptive Research

21. Practical Applications: Using the Internet to Collect Data for Descriptive Study
Using custom made websites or commercial “survey-ready” websites
Ready templates with variety of questions types
Accepting Terms & Conditions “Virtual Consent”
Sampling is a problem:
Collect some personal information (Age group, educational level, gender, etc.)
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22. Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Research
Sampling: The process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest for a study.
Sample: A sample is made up of individuals, events, or items selected from the population
Generalization about the entire population?
Stating the problem must carefully qualifying words as: selected – representative – typical – certain – a random sample of.
Example:
The purpose of this research is to survey …. Of the population.
The purpose of this research is to survey the representative …. Of a random sample of the population.
Generalization about the entire population
(only if the sample is truly representative of the population)
In general, the sampling should be so carefully chosen that the researcher is able to seen characteristics of the total population in the same properties and relationships that they would be seen if the researcher were to examine the total population.
If the sampling procedure is not carefully planned, any conclusion the researcher draws from the data are likely to be distorted (Bias)
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23. Defining a Population
Population may be any size and cover large geographical distance.
The entire population is rarely available.
Target population: population to which the researcher would ideally like to generalize results.
Accessible population: population from which researcher can realistically select participants.
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24. Probability Sampling Approaches
These techniques permit the researcher to specify the probability that each member of the population has being selected for the sample
Simple random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Proportional stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
Systematic sampling
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25. Stratified random sampling
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26. Proportional stratified sampling
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27. Cluster sampling
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28. Systematic sampling
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29. CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

30. Non-probability Sampling Approaches
Convenience sampling
Quota sampling
Purposive sampling
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31. Sampling in Surveys of Very Large Population
The survey research center of the university of Michigan’s institute for social research (1976) has used what it calls multistage sampling of areas:
Primary area selection
Sample location selection
Chunk selection
Segment selection
Housing unit selection
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32. CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

33. Identifying a Sufficient sample size
For smaller population (N ≤ 100)
Survey the entire population
If the population size about N = 500 (give or take 100)
50 % should be sampled
If the population size is around 1500
20 % should be sampled
Beyond a certain point ( about N = 5000)
Sample size of 400 will be adequate
If the population is markedly heterogeneous, a large sample will be necessary than if the population is fairly homogeneous.
CSC Descriptive Research

34. Bias in research sampling Acknowledging the probable presence of Bias
Identify possible bias in questionnaire research:
Carefully scrutinize the questionnaire for that might be influenced by one’s education level, interest in the topic, or other factors that frequently distinguish respondents from non-respondents.
Compare the responses on questionnaires that were returned quickly with responses on those that were returned later
The late ones may, to some extent, reflect the kinds of responses that non-respondents would have given.
Significant difference between the early and late questionnaire probably indicate bias in your results.
Randomly select small number of non-respondents and try to contact them by other way.
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35. Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research
Basic principles of research:
The purpose of research is to seek the answer to a problem in the light of data that relate to the problem.
Although collecting data for study and organizing it for inspection require care and precision, extracting meaning from the data – the interpretation of the data – is all important.
The researcher must decide on population; choose a technique for sampling; develop a valid means of collecting the desired information; minimize the potential entrance of bias into the study; then actually collect, record, organize, and analyze all of the necessary data.
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36. Final Suggestion Consider the following questions:
Why is a description of this population and/or phenomenon valuable?
What specific data will I need to solve my research problem and its sub problems?
What procedures should I follow to obtain the necessary information? How should I implement those procedures?
How do I get a sample that will truly be reflective of the entire population about which I am concerned?
How can I collect my data in a way that minimize misrepresentations and misunderstanding?
How can I control for possible bias in the collection and description of the data?
What do I do with the data once I have collected them? How I organize and prepare them for analysis?
In what way might I reasonably interpret the data? What conclusion might I reach from my investigation?
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37. Descriptive Research 
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