1. The effect of war on children and families How is modern warfare different? How is modern warfare different? The psychology of war The psychology of war Research on children’s experiences Research on children’s experiences Research on child soldiers (recruitment, control, rehabilitation) Research on child soldiers (recruitment, control, rehabilitation) Studies of particular conflicts (e.g., Northern Ireland, Cambodia, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Palestine) Studies of particular conflicts (e.g., Northern Ireland, Cambodia, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Palestine) The field of peace psychology The field of peace psychology

3. How is modern warfare different? Percent of causalities who are civilians US civil war, Battle of Gettysburg: 1 civilian casuality WWI: 10% of deaths were civilians WWII: 50% After WWII: up to 80%

4. US-Iraq war, 2003- present U.S. Soldiers: 2,800 U.S. Soldiers: 2,800 Iraqis (civilians,“insurgents”): 100,000 Iraqis (civilians,“insurgents”): 100,000

5. The psychology of war LeShan (1992, 2000); Grossman Rosen, Armies of the Young

12. Research on children’s experiences of war Explosion of research following WWII Explosion of research following WWII Study of children’s reactions to bombing in London: Study of children’s reactions to bombing in London: Experiencing the bombing had much less of a negative effect than did separation from parents following the evacuation of London Experiencing the bombing had much less of a negative effect than did separation from parents following the evacuation of London

13. Peter Cooper (1965) pursued Piagetian-style analysis 300 British, 100 Japanese children, aged seven through sixteen Open-ended questionnaires and interviews. Age 6-13: children are optimistic about possibilities of peaceful coexistence Age 6-13: children are optimistic about possibilities of peaceful coexistence Age 13+: with developing cognitive skills, children more likely to begin to see war as an inevitable part of human conflict (hostile instinctual drives. Age 13+: with developing cognitive skills, children more likely to begin to see war as an inevitable part of human conflict (hostile instinctual drives. Stages of understanding of war concepts

14. With age, teens increased their acceptance of and justification for war Age 11-13: critically important time in the development of attitudes about war. In three studies, Norwegian, Swedish and German children had fewer ideas about peace as an active process than about war In three studies, Norwegian, Swedish and German children had fewer ideas about peace as an active process than about war

15. Comments by children age 8-17 (California, 1965) It isn’t nice to fight for nothing. That is why I don’t like war. It isn’t nice to fight for nothing. That is why I don’t like war. I hate war so much I wish I could stop it, but I can’t... I hate war so much I wish I could stop it, but I can’t... War is many things to many people. To some it’s a game. To others a way to money. To me it’s a waste of everything we’ve learned... War is many things to many people. To some it’s a game. To others a way to money. To me it’s a waste of everything we’ve learned... I think that man, because of his emotions, will continue to kill each other and there is another kind of war besides killing people and that’s killing our our environment… I think that man, because of his emotions, will continue to kill each other and there is another kind of war besides killing people and that’s killing our our environment… People say we must kill for our ideas, but I can’t think of one idea I would kill for because I don’t think the idea is worth a damn if someone or something is killed... People say we must kill for our ideas, but I can’t think of one idea I would kill for because I don’t think the idea is worth a damn if someone or something is killed...

16. Comments by older teens… I don’t think I will or my great, great, great grandchildren will ever witness complete peace in the world... I don’t think I will or my great, great, great grandchildren will ever witness complete peace in the world... There are no rules. War is war. It is in every one of us. People have been doomed to war as long as they could argue. As people’s language and customs separate them, they find reasons for war. There are no rules. War is war. It is in every one of us. People have been doomed to war as long as they could argue. As people’s language and customs separate them, they find reasons for war. I think war is a bunch of men fighting over land, government, ownership, and a lot of other things. People getting killed for something that can be talked out and maybe solve the problem. I think war is a bunch of men fighting over land, government, ownership, and a lot of other things. People getting killed for something that can be talked out and maybe solve the problem. War is proof of man’s ability to think for himself and lack of ability to think of others. It is easier to hate than to love... War is proof of man’s ability to think for himself and lack of ability to think of others. It is easier to hate than to love...

17. Child Soldiers In Focus

18. Child soldiers often fight on the front lines of conflict. Child soldiers often fight on the front lines of conflict. They serve as scouts, spies, trainers, saboteurs, decoys, couriers, guards, and landmine clearers.They serve as scouts, spies, trainers, saboteurs, decoys, couriers, guards, and landmine clearers. Child soldiers also work indirectly as porters and domestic servants. Child soldiers also work indirectly as porters and domestic servants. Girl soldiers are often used as sexual Girl soldiers are often used as sexual slaves or are given as rewards to male soldiers as “ wives. ” Child Soldiers What do child soldiers do? Source: MSNBC

19. Child Soldiers Where are child soldiers? Children at War Around the World Source: UN

20. 300,000 children around the world are actively participating in more than 20 armed conflicts. 300,000 children around the world are actively participating in more than 20 armed conflicts. More than 20,000 children have been abducted and trained as soldiers by the Lord ’ s Resistance Army (LRA) in Sudan since May 2002 More than 20,000 children have been abducted and trained as soldiers by the Lord ’ s Resistance Army (LRA) in Sudan since May 2002 Some of countries that use child soldiers are Burma, Columbia, Sri Lanka, Rwanda, Liberia, Uganda, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and Cote d'Ivoire. Some of countries that use child soldiers are Burma, Columbia, Sri Lanka, Rwanda, Liberia, Uganda, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and Cote d'Ivoire. Source: “Child Protection: Armed Conflict,” http://www.unicef.org/protection/index_armedconflict.html (3 March 2004). Source: “UNICEF-led team finds 163 Congolese child soldiers in Uganda,” 22 November 2003, http://www.unicef.org/newsline/01pr19.htm (3 March 2004). Child Soldiers Where are child soldiers?

21. Child soldiers increase the number of fighters. Child soldiers increase the number of fighters. Children are more easily manipulated and controlled – they are more likely to follow orders without question – than adults. Children are more easily manipulated and controlled – they are more likely to follow orders without question – than adults. Children can hide in tight quarters because they are physically smaller than adults. Children can hide in tight quarters because they are physically smaller than adults. People generally do not suspect children to be soldiers, so they can slip through many security checks unexamined. People generally do not suspect children to be soldiers, so they can slip through many security checks unexamined. Advances in technology have produced weapons light and cheap enough to be used by children. Advances in technology have produced weapons light and cheap enough to be used by children. Child Soldiers Why are there child soldiers?

22. Children in extreme poverty who are desperate for food and shelter. Children in extreme poverty who are desperate for food and shelter. Children without identification papers. Children without identification papers. Orphans and children with weak family structures. Orphans and children with weak family structures. Children living in refugee camps or conflict zones. Children living in refugee camps or conflict zones. Child Soldiers Which children are affected? Source: UN

23. Uganda Abuductions at night for Lord's Resistance Army in Uganda The abductions began late 1980s and peaked around the early 2000s. Force children to loot and capture other children. Some children are even forced to kill their own family members as a means of desensitizing them against murder and ultimately “ hardening ” them.

25. Night Commuters (to avoid abduction)

26. Quotes on the Tactics of the LRA “…They told us to decide among ourselves who should be eaten. At first, we thought it was a joke until they decided themselves on a certain girl whom they slaughtered and cut into pieces. Then they told us to cook the pieces. When it was ready, the rebels forced us to eat the cooked girl. After that we were told to kill an old man who was helpless.

27. Quotes on the Tactics of the LRA After a week, the rebels brought us to Amaseniko camp [Amuria] where we had been abducted and told us to burn houses. I was told to kill my grandfather. When I tried to refuse, the rebels beat me hard until I accepted to kill him using heavy stones. Then we went ahead to kill two more people we came across” (Girl, 13) (Chrobok and Akutu, 2008).

28. Quotes on the Tactics of the LRA “The rebels cut our necks and put herbs inside to confuse our heads. This made me wanting to stay with the group. It makes you feel that you don’t want to go home. They also performed some rituals on us, every evening they smoked us with some herbs that make you go and kill somebody” (Boy, 17) (Chrobok and Akutu, 2008).

29. To demonstrate the fate of the girls… … to those who were going back [to the camp], the bandit chief of the group picked out one, the small girl who was less than eight. In front of everyone, he tried to rape her. The child’s vagina was small and he could not penetrate. On a whim, he took a whetted pocketknife and opened her with a violent stroke. He took her in blood. The child died.” (Honwana, 2006).

30. Uganda’s Conflict Pro-government military armies also recruit children to fight the LRA. They sometimes even recruit former LRA child soldiers (Wessells, 2006).

31. Life in the Lord's Resistance Army (Uganda) have to carry very heavy loads and walk long distances without food for days. Indoctrinated with ludicrous ideas. submitted to extreme violence constantly drugged. trained in armed combat cook and spy for their commanders forced to kill other children forced to kill their own families girls must submit to repeated rape

32. Psychological Tactics used by the LRA Wessells, M. (2006). Child soldiers: From violence to protection. They are told to apply a “ holy ” oil to their bodies, that are said to make them will become immortal, as bullets cannot pierce their bodies. If someone is killed while having the oil on, they are presumed to have been sinful and they deserved death. They also preach that stones will turn into grenades and sticks into swords.

33. How do leaders control their child soldiers/ Isolate them from the outside world and their familiar surroundings Lie about the intentions of the opposition or about the children’s fate if the opposition should capture them. progressive exposure to violence removal of personal responsibility for killing

34. Children’s reactions after they have been forced to commit murder depend of their individual “temperaments, resilience, and dominant coping strategies” (p. 64).

35. Five Psychological Processes According to Michael Wessells (2006) 1)The children decide to kill instead of being killed because of their strong “will to survive” (p.79) 2)When the children kill, they are obeying their commanders. Responsibility shifts to the person who ordered them to kill. 3)Violence is justified and seen as normal. These children become desensitized to violence after being repeatedly exposed to it. Other children “may see such acts as surreal” which is also a normal coping mechanism in order to bridge the significant gap between their morals and what they were forced to do (p.65).

36. Psychological Processes (Continued) 4) These children begin to feel satisfaction when they kill, as it is a form of revenge against the enemy and it is also a form of proving oneself and gaining respect within the armed group. This is especially relevant to the teenagers as they are seeking acceptance from their peers. 5) Ideology. Through indoctrination, these children come to see this violence as a vehicle to achieve “liberation, social justice, or religious redemption” (p. 80).

37. Psychological Effects on Teenager Child Soldiers (Continued) Skillful psychological tactics of isolation, indoctrination, and shaping their identities, ultimately achieve the end they aim for: these children become ruthless killers who also acquire a soldier’s identity and therefore become physically and emotionally involved into the conflict.

38. Life After War When they escape, they walk in dangerous territories for days without food and in fear of recapture, in which case the LRA would possibly kill them or severely beat them (Chrobok and Akutu, 2008). rehabilitation centers or home (family may be dead) Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration or DDR program. programs lack funds and adequate support

39. Life After the LRA (Continued, according to Chrobok and Akutu, 2008) Problems: homelessness, lack of food, their parents have died, sickness, impairments, psychological illnesses, lack of schooling, and having to care for younger siblings

40. Life After the LRA (Continued, according to Chrobok and Akutu, 2008) Their communities feel that these children caused the violence and the killing that harmed their own people. They worry children will “continue to kill.” Adults whose children have not come back show hostility

41. Life After the LRA (Continued) behind in their education peers display rejection former child soldiers who have been interviewed recommend educating former child soldiers separately from the rest of the children of the community. In response to this social ostracism, children are very aggressive. –“I was very aggressive, I felt like cutting any child.” - (Girl, 16) Former child soldiers feel depressed, lonely, and have low self-esteem as a result from the rejection and bullying they experience.

42. Effects at Age of Reintegration better reception by community if return before 14. interact and play with peers more easily when they are younger Regarded as too young to be stigmatized. They are regarded as being unable to mentally process what is happening to them or what they are forced to do The quote reads: “God says: ‘I will always be with you’”

43. Older than 13… Older children are seen as more blameworthy. Younger girls have easier readjustment because most older girls have experienced sexual abuse and sometimes come back pregnant or with a child.

44. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) signed by the United Nations General Assembly in 1989 protects children under the age of 15 from involvement in the armed forces. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) signed by the United Nations General Assembly in 1989 protects children under the age of 15 from involvement in the armed forces. All countries but Somalia and the United States have ratified the CRC.All countries but Somalia and the United States have ratified the CRC. A 2000 Protocol (optional addition) to the CRC raised the age from 15 to 18 years. A 2000 Protocol (optional addition) to the CRC raised the age from 15 to 18 years. This Protocol also prohibits non-governmental armed groups from recruiting soldiers under the age of 18.This Protocol also prohibits non-governmental armed groups from recruiting soldiers under the age of 18. Child Soldiers What’s being done to stop the use of child soldiers?

45. Disarmament Disarmament Demobilization Demobilization Rehabilitation and Reintegration Rehabilitation and Reintegration Can be difficult for child to readjust. The UN and NGOs try to provide psychological support, education, and job training. Child Soldiers What’s being done to help child soldiers return to normal life? Source: BBC

46. Returning back to society is difficult Sometimes a return to normalcy is impossible: Sometimes a return to normalcy is impossible: PBS Documentary “No More Tears Sister”PBS Documentary “No More Tears Sister”

47. Studies of particular conflicts: How are families and children affected? Northern Ireland: more affluent, better infrastructure Northern Ireland: more affluent, better infrastructure One finding: exposure to conflict did not increase depression and anxiety (internalizing disorders); did increase externalizing disordersOne finding: exposure to conflict did not increase depression and anxiety (internalizing disorders); did increase externalizing disorders

48. Distress symptoms (Bosnia, published 1997)

49. Palestinian Children in War Zone: Coping strategies and their long term effects By: Roney Srour Clinical Psychologist Palestinian Counseling Center (November 18, 2003) Prepared for: BORN INTO CONFLICT Children’s Human Rights in Israel and Palestine An International Symposium in Vienna, November 17 -19th, 2003 BRUNO KREISKY FORUM FOR INTERNATIONAL DIALOGUE

50. Study of children living under Israeli occupation during first Intifada (1987-1992) Coping strategies Fight back Fight back Social Social Familial Familial

51. Study of children living under Israeli occupation during first Intifada (1987-1992) Fight back: children who participated in active resistance against Israeli solders during the first Intifada had less PTSD symptoms than those children who were not engaged in active resistance Fight back: children who participated in active resistance against Israeli solders during the first Intifada had less PTSD symptoms than those children who were not engaged in active resistance (Active resistance means demonstrations, throwing of stones, burning tires, etc.)(Active resistance means demonstrations, throwing of stones, burning tires, etc.)

52. Study of children living under Israeli occupation during first Intifada (1987-1992) Social ideology: children who believed they knew why the first Intifada was taking place had fewer symptoms. The children who took part in the festivals after the PLO came back to Gaza and the West Bank also had fewer symptoms. Social ideology: children who believed they knew why the first Intifada was taking place had fewer symptoms. The children who took part in the festivals after the PLO came back to Gaza and the West Bank also had fewer symptoms.

53. Study of children living under Israeli occupation during first Intifada (1987-1992) Family factors Family factors Positive: Children who had warm and supportive experiences with their parents had fewer symptoms, although they experienced traumatic events by solders. Positive: Children who had warm and supportive experiences with their parents had fewer symptoms, although they experienced traumatic events by solders. Negative: Severe symptoms if parents had been imprisoned (Isreali prisons used techniques like confinement in boxes too small to stand or lie down in; arms tied to bars behind back to cause pain) Negative: Severe symptoms if parents had been imprisoned (Isreali prisons used techniques like confinement in boxes too small to stand or lie down in; arms tied to bars behind back to cause pain)

54. Impact of US-Iraq war on Iraqi children Viewpoints Most widespread effect will be side effects of war (malnutrition, lack of access to education) Most widespread effect will be side effects of war (malnutrition, lack of access to education) Protective factors are: if basic routine is not disrupted Protective factors are: if basic routine is not disrupted

56. Peace Psychology: Mission Statement : The Society for the Study of Peace, Conflict and Violence: Peace Psychology Division of the American Psychological Association As peace psychologists, our vision is the development of sustainable societies through the prevention of destructive conflict and violence, the amelioration of its consequences, the empowerment of individuals, and the building of cultures of peace and global community.

57. What Are the Interests of Peace Psychology? Theory, research, and practice related to social conflict and violence, war and peace Theory, research, and practice related to social conflict and violence, war and peace Structural (indirect) and direct violence and its prevention/amelioration Structural (indirect) and direct violence and its prevention/amelioration Community to international focus Community to international focus Systems and contexts Systems and contexts Social justice Social justice Activism Activism

58. Interdisciplinary Interests Peace psychology welcomes interdisciplinary perspectives and involvement. Our professions include psychology, child development, social workers, feminist studies, international studies, social and cultural sciences, education, peace activists, humanitarian workers, medical and health disciplines, and political scientists, among others!

59. Do women have a special interest in (or responsibility to promote) peace psychology? Yes….? No…..?

60. Do women have a special interest in (or responsibility to promote) peace psychology? Yes: (Males inherently more warlike) Evolutionary psychology perspective: prior wars have been the outcome of male-dominated societies and thus an egalitarian society may have less war. Reasoning: male reproductive strategies require securing sexual access to multiple females which can be done by obtaining power over other males. Reproductive success for women involves securing resources for childcare. Social disempowerment perspective: Disempowered peoples of any gender are more hurt by war than are powerful people. Women (and children) are less powerful and have more to lose by war.

61. Do women have a special interest in (or responsibility to promote) peace psychology? No: War is equally destructive and harmful to men and women Men are not the “winners” in war other than a few who become powerful; men suffer death and injury/disabilty in combat more than women

62. Key Publications Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology (first published in 1995) Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology (first published in 1995) Peace, Conflict, and Violence: Peace Psychology for the 21 st Century (Christie, Wagner, and Winter, 2001, Prentice Hall) Peace, Conflict, and Violence: Peace Psychology for the 21 st Century (Christie, Wagner, and Winter, 2001, Prentice Hall) Newsletters of The Society for the Study of Peace Conflict and Violence: Peace Psychology Division of the American Psychological Association and Psychologists for Social Responsibility Newsletters of The Society for the Study of Peace Conflict and Violence: Peace Psychology Division of the American Psychological Association and Psychologists for Social Responsibility

63. For more information on children and war http://www.un.org/ch ildren/conflict. The site offers updated information on this topic and overviews of country visits to Burundi, Colombia, Former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia and Albania, Liberia, Mozambique, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, SriLanka, and Sudan; an excellent range of selected documents relevant to this topic; press

64. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers http://www.childsoldiers.org http://www.cdi.org/atp/childsoldiers/links.html

65. Children and War portion of the UNICEF Voices of Youth website http://www.unicef.org/voy. Read the views of children worldwide.

66. Center for Defense Information www.cdi.org/atp/childsoldiers Human Rights Watch www.hrw.org International Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers www.child-soldiers.org UNICEFwww.unicef.org War Child www.warchild.org Youth Advocate Program International www.yapi.org Child Soldiers For more information