1. What is an Attitude? “An organized predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable manner toward a specified class of objects” (Shaver, 1977) Position on a bipolar affective or evaluative dimension (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) Networks of interrelated beliefs that reside in long-term memory and are activated when the attitude object or issue is encountered (Tourangeau & Rasinksi, 1988)

2. Measuring Attitudes: Thurstone’s Equal Appearing Intervals (1928) Create pool of belief items (~100) ~300 judges rate favorability of items –Scale value of item = average rating –Exclude items with high variance Final scale: ~20 evenly distributed items Person checks items (s)he agrees with Score = median value of checked items

3. Measuring Attitudes: Likert’s Summated Ratings (1932) Create pool of belief items Decide how to score each (+ or -) –exclude neutral or ambiguous items Administer to relevant sample –bipolar SA (+2) to SD (-2) scale Criterion of internal consistency –item-total correlations & Coefficient Alpha

4. Issues with Likert Scales Ambiguity of SD responses –Women deserve same job opportunities as men –So use bipolar scales (“Women deserve…”) Scaling is compensatory –5 SA + 5 SD = 10 N = 5A + 5D Include neutral midpoint? How many anchors?

5. Measuring Attitudes: Guttman’s Scalogram (1944) Create set of items that form a uni- dimensional hierarchy Score = “highest” item person endorses e.g., attitudes towards gambling: –Place bets with bookie –Gambling trips to Las Vegas –Bet on greyhounds/horses –Office football/basketball pools –Penny ante poker with friends –No-stakes wager with a friend

6. Measuring Attitudes: Osgood’s Semantic Differential Scale Subjects rate items on bipolar adjectives: –good…………………………………bad –favorable ……………………unfavorable –like……………………………….dislike Score = sum of responses to all items Most direct measure of evaluation/affect

8. What is Job Satisfaction? Spector: –“the degree to which people like their jobs” –“How people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs” Work characteristics Job Satisfaction(s)

9. Simple Discrepancy Models Porter (1961): Need Satisfaction –Desired-Actual Minnesota Work Adjustment Model –20 “reinforcers” (based on Murray’s 12 needs) Locke (1976): Values –“Job satisfaction results from appraisal of one’s job as attaining…one’s important job values” – provided these values are congruent with basic needs

10. Perceived characteristics Job Satisfaction(s) Objective characteristics Needs/ Values

11. Frame of Reference Models March & Simon –Evaluation of inducements/contributions ratio –Labor market affects value of contributions Cornell Model: Outcomes vs. Expectations –Evaluations of outcomes are affected by Frame of Reference (alternatives, past experience, economy) Hulin, Roznowski & Hachiya (1985) –Frame of reference influences both contributions and inducements

12. Perceived characteristics Job Satisfaction(s) Objective characteristics Needs/ Values Frame of Reference

13. Questioning the Situational View A chink in the armor: are perceptions veridical with objective reality? Social Information Processing model Dispositional View

14. Alternative Models of JS: Social Information Processing Model Social construction of attitudes vs objective characteristics) –Salancik & Pfeffer (1978) –Roots in Schachter & Singer (1962) Attitude statements based on: –Perception of affective components –Social context cues –Self-attributions about behavior Event Generalized Arousal Cues JS

15. Alternative Models of JS: Dispositional Approach Staw & Ross (1985) –Surprising stability over time/situations Staw, Bell & Clausen (1986) –Childhood temperament predicts adult JS Arvey et al. (1989) –JS has hereditary component (30%)

16. Caveats re: Dispositional Approach General questions about behavioral genetics Gerhart (1987): Situation AND Disposition –Compared effects on current satisfaction of prior satisfaction, pay, job complexity –Job complexity had strongest effect Why isn’t extrinsic satisfaction heritable? Why is JS heritable? A JS gene?

17. Temperament and Job Satisfaction Trait NA/PA may be key factor –Some reason to believe that it may have biological basis, and thus inheritable Those high in NA are more likely to: –Notice negative stimuli –Evaluate stimuli in negative terms –Recall negative stimuli –Create interpersonal conflict  dissatisfaction

18. Primacy of Affect or Judgment EventsAffectJS Weiss & Cropanzano (1996) DispositionMood at workJS Weiss et al. (1999) DispositionInterpretationsJS Brief (1998)

19. Primacy of Affect or Judgment Disposition Interpretations JS Brief & Weiss (2002) Mood Stress events Strain JS Fuller et al. (2003) Mood

20. Subjective Norm Attitude: Act Behavior Intent Behavior Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen) Attitudes and Behavior

21. Evaluation Behavior beliefs Normative beliefs Motivation to Comply Subjective Norm Attitude: Act Behavior Intent Behavior Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen) Attitudes and Behavior

22. Evaluation Behavior beliefs Normative beliefs Motivation to Comply Subjective Norm Attitude: Act Behavior Intent Behavior Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen) Constraints Attitudes and Behavior