1. Theory Building in Management Research IS 366C Dr. Samir Chatterjee

2. Concerns in the Discipline Management and IS scholars spend lot of energy defending various research methods. Management and IS scholars spend lot of energy defending various research methods. Debates about deductive versus inductive theory-building or field observation versus large-sample numerical data affect our lives. Debates about deductive versus inductive theory-building or field observation versus large-sample numerical data affect our lives. Yet respected members of our community (Simon, Solow, Staw, Sutton, Hayes) have continued to express concerns that collective efforts of business academics have produced a paucity of theory that is intellectually rigorous, practically useful, and able to stand the tests of time and changing circumstances. Yet respected members of our community (Simon, Solow, Staw, Sutton, Hayes) have continued to express concerns that collective efforts of business academics have produced a paucity of theory that is intellectually rigorous, practically useful, and able to stand the tests of time and changing circumstances.

3. Cycle of Theory Building We have to outline a process of theory building that links questions about data, methods and theory. We have to outline a process of theory building that links questions about data, methods and theory. Theory thus become instruments, not answers to enigmas, in which we can rest. We don’t lie back upon them, we move forward, and, on occasion, make nature over again by their aid. (William James, 1907).

4. The Theory Building Process The building of theory occurs in two major stages – the descriptive stage and the normative stage. The building of theory occurs in two major stages – the descriptive stage and the normative stage. Within each of these stages, theory builders proceed through three steps: observation, categorization, and association. Within each of these stages, theory builders proceed through three steps: observation, categorization, and association. The theory-building process iterates through these stages again and again. The theory-building process iterates through these stages again and again. In the past management researchers have quite carelessly applied the term theory to research activities that pertain to only one of these steps. In the past management researchers have quite carelessly applied the term theory to research activities that pertain to only one of these steps. Terms such as “utility theory” in economics, and “contingency theory” in organization design, actually refer only to an individual stage in the theory-building process in their respective fields. Terms such as “utility theory” in economics, and “contingency theory” in organization design, actually refer only to an individual stage in the theory-building process in their respective fields.

5. Building the Descriptive Process Observe, describe & measure the phenomena (constructs) Anomaly Categorization based upon Attributes of phenomena (frameworks & typologies) Statements of Association (models) confirm Predict Inductive process Deductive process

6. 1. Observation In the first step researchers observe phenomena and carefully describe and measure what they see. In the first step researchers observe phenomena and carefully describe and measure what they see. Observation, documentation and measurement of the phenomena in words and numbers is important. Observation, documentation and measurement of the phenomena in words and numbers is important. This is the foundation work, the base of the pyramid. This is the foundation work, the base of the pyramid. The phenomena being explored in this stage includes not just things such as people, organizations and technologies, but processes as well. The phenomena being explored in this stage includes not just things such as people, organizations and technologies, but processes as well. Researchers in this step often develop abstractions from the messy detail of phenomena that we term constructs. Researchers in this step often develop abstractions from the messy detail of phenomena that we term constructs. Constructs help us understand and visualize what the phenomena are, how they operate. Constructs help us understand and visualize what the phenomena are, how they operate.

7. Examples For years, scholars of inventory policy and supply-chain system used the tools of operations research to derive ever-more-sophisticated optimizing algorithms for inventory replenishment. Most were based on the assumption that managers know what their levels of inventory are. For years, scholars of inventory policy and supply-chain system used the tools of operations research to derive ever-more-sophisticated optimizing algorithms for inventory replenishment. Most were based on the assumption that managers know what their levels of inventory are. Ananth Raman’s path breaking research of the phenomena, however, obviated much of this research when he showed that most firms’ computerized inventory records were broadly inaccurate – even when they used state-of-the-art automated tracking systems. Ananth Raman’s path breaking research of the phenomena, however, obviated much of this research when he showed that most firms’ computerized inventory records were broadly inaccurate – even when they used state-of-the-art automated tracking systems. Joseph Bower created constructs of impetus and context in resource allocation process, explaining how momentum builds behind certain investment proposals and fails to coalesce behind others. Joseph Bower created constructs of impetus and context in resource allocation process, explaining how momentum builds behind certain investment proposals and fails to coalesce behind others.

8. 2. Classification With the phenomena observed and described, researchers in the second stage then classify the phenomena into categories. With the phenomena observed and described, researchers in the second stage then classify the phenomena into categories. In the descriptive stage of theory building, the classification schemes that scholars propose typically are defined by the attributes of the phenomena. In the descriptive stage of theory building, the classification schemes that scholars propose typically are defined by the attributes of the phenomena. Diversified vs. focused firms, vertically integrated vs. specialist firms, publicly traded vs. privately held companies. Diversified vs. focused firms, vertically integrated vs. specialist firms, publicly traded vs. privately held companies. Such categorization schemes attempt to simplify and organize the world in ways that highlight possibly consequential relationships between the phenomena and outcomes of interest. Such categorization schemes attempt to simplify and organize the world in ways that highlight possibly consequential relationships between the phenomena and outcomes of interest. These schemes are often referred to as frameworks or typologies. These schemes are often referred to as frameworks or typologies.

9. 3. Defining Relationships In the third step, researchers explore the association between the category- defining attributes and the outcomes observed. In the third step, researchers explore the association between the category- defining attributes and the outcomes observed. Researchers recognize and make explicit what differences in attributes, and differences in the magnitude of those attributes, correlate most strongly with the patterns in the outcomes of interest. Researchers recognize and make explicit what differences in attributes, and differences in the magnitude of those attributes, correlate most strongly with the patterns in the outcomes of interest. Techniques such as regression analysis typically are useful in defining these correlations. Techniques such as regression analysis typically are useful in defining these correlations. Often we refer to the output of studies at this step as models. Often we refer to the output of studies at this step as models. Descriptive theory that quantifies the degree of correlation between the category-defining attributes of the phenomena and the outcomes of interest are generally only able to make probabilistic statements of association representing average tendencies. Descriptive theory that quantifies the degree of correlation between the category-defining attributes of the phenomena and the outcomes of interest are generally only able to make probabilistic statements of association representing average tendencies.

10. Examples Hutton, Miller and Skinner (2000) have examined how stock prices have responded to earnings announcements that were phrased or couched in various terms. Hutton, Miller and Skinner (2000) have examined how stock prices have responded to earnings announcements that were phrased or couched in various terms. They coded types of words and phrases in the statements as explanatory variables in a regression equation, with the ensuing change in equity price as the dependent variable. They coded types of words and phrases in the statements as explanatory variables in a regression equation, with the ensuing change in equity price as the dependent variable. Research results such as this is important descriptive theory, however at this point it can only assert on average what attributes are associated with the best results. Research results such as this is important descriptive theory, however at this point it can only assert on average what attributes are associated with the best results. A specific manager of a specific company cannot know if following that average formula will lead to the hoped-for- outcome in her specific situation. The ability to predict such things awaits the development of normative theory in this field. A specific manager of a specific company cannot know if following that average formula will lead to the hoped-for- outcome in her specific situation. The ability to predict such things awaits the development of normative theory in this field.

11. Anomaly – Improving Descriptive Theory Moving from bottom to the top of the pyramid using three steps – observation, categorization, association – they have followed the inductive portion of the theory building. Moving from bottom to the top of the pyramid using three steps – observation, categorization, association – they have followed the inductive portion of the theory building. Theory begins to improve when researchers cycle from the top back to the bottom of this pyramid in the deductive portion of the cycle – seeking to “test” the hypothesis that had been inductively formulated. Theory begins to improve when researchers cycle from the top back to the bottom of this pyramid in the deductive portion of the cycle – seeking to “test” the hypothesis that had been inductively formulated. This is mostly done to see if the correlations between attributes also hold in other data sets than the ones that were used for the original inductive steps. This is mostly done to see if the correlations between attributes also hold in other data sets than the ones that were used for the original inductive steps. If it correlates in a new data set, this “test” confirms that the theory is of use under the conditions or circumstances observed. If it correlates in a new data set, this “test” confirms that the theory is of use under the conditions or circumstances observed. The researcher returns the model to its place atop the pyramid tested but unimproved. The researcher returns the model to its place atop the pyramid tested but unimproved. It is only when an anomaly is identified – an outcome for which the theory can’t account that an opportunity to improve theory occurs. It is only when an anomaly is identified – an outcome for which the theory can’t account that an opportunity to improve theory occurs.

12. Anomaly Cycling Discovering of an anomaly gives researchers the opportunity to revisit the categorization scheme – to cut the data in a different way – so that the anomaly and prior associations of attributes and outcomes can all be explained. Discovering of an anomaly gives researchers the opportunity to revisit the categorization scheme – to cut the data in a different way – so that the anomaly and prior associations of attributes and outcomes can all be explained. Phenomenon – How technological innovation affects the fortunes of leading firms. Theory – Leading established firms on average do well when faced with incremental Innovation, but they stumble in the face of radical change. Attribute-based categorization – radical versus incremental innovation. Anomaly to this generalization – established firms that successfully implemented Radical technology change. Different categorization was proposed: competence-enhancing vs. competence-destroying Technological changes. Later, modular vs. architectural innovations, sustaining vs. disruptive technologies, Threat-vs.-opportunity framing uncovered and resolved certain anomalies.

13. Transition to Normative Theory It is important to move beyond statements of correlation to define what causes the outcome of interest. It is important to move beyond statements of correlation to define what causes the outcome of interest. This is typically achieved by careful detailed empirical and ethnographic observation. This is typically achieved by careful detailed empirical and ethnographic observation. It is necessary to leap across to the top of the pyramid of causal theory. It is necessary to leap across to the top of the pyramid of causal theory. With their understanding of causality, researchers then work to improve theory by following the same three steps that were used in the descriptive stage. With their understanding of causality, researchers then work to improve theory by following the same three steps that were used in the descriptive stage. Hypothesizing that their statement of causality is correct, they cycle deductively to the bottom of the pyramid to test the casual statement. If anomaly is encountered, they delve into categorization stage. Hypothesizing that their statement of causality is correct, they cycle deductively to the bottom of the pyramid to test the casual statement. If anomaly is encountered, they delve into categorization stage. By cycling up and down the pyramid of normative theory, researchers will ultimately define the set of situations or circumstances in which managers might find themselves when pursuing the outcomes of interest. By cycling up and down the pyramid of normative theory, researchers will ultimately define the set of situations or circumstances in which managers might find themselves when pursuing the outcomes of interest. This allows researchers to make contingent statements of causality – to show how and why the causal mechanisms results in a different outcome in different situations. This allows researchers to make contingent statements of causality – to show how and why the causal mechanisms results in a different outcome in different situations.

14. anomaly Normative Theory Descriptive Theory Observe, describe & measure the phenomena Categorization of the Circumstances in which We might find ourselves Statement Of causality confirm Deductive process predict Careful field-based research A theory completes the transition from descriptive to normative when it can give a manager unambiguous guidance about what actions will and will not lead to the desired result, given the circumstance in which she finds herself.

15. Is Design Theory Possible? Is Design Theory Possible?

16. Design is Practice The notion of a theory of design is problematic because design, like medicine or management, is a practice. The notion of a theory of design is problematic because design, like medicine or management, is a practice. Whereas chemistry or physics is defined by a set of phenomena it is assigned to study, design is defined by a task it is assigned to do. Whereas chemistry or physics is defined by a set of phenomena it is assigned to study, design is defined by a task it is assigned to do. It is not to dispute that one can theorize about design practice, in the sense that one can theoretically understand the socio-psychological phenomenon of design. But that is not design theory. It is not to dispute that one can theorize about design practice, in the sense that one can theoretically understand the socio-psychological phenomenon of design. But that is not design theory.

17. Design is Pre-Theory We know that a number of practical sciences are centered on design: physical artifacts, software, organizations or information systems. This raises the issue of whether there can be in fact a science of design with a theoretical basis. We know that a number of practical sciences are centered on design: physical artifacts, software, organizations or information systems. This raises the issue of whether there can be in fact a science of design with a theoretical basis. J. Hooker maintains that there cannot be a theory of design in the same sense that there is a theory of physics or chemistry. J. Hooker maintains that there cannot be a theory of design in the same sense that there is a theory of physics or chemistry. Great past thinkers have shown that a practice, such as design, cannot be reduced to theory because practice is essential pretheoretical. Great past thinkers have shown that a practice, such as design, cannot be reduced to theory because practice is essential pretheoretical. The argument is based partly on Quine’s indeterminacy of translation thesis: without pretheoretical discourse to supply the concepts explained by theories, there would be no way to understand what it means for competing theories to offer different explanations of the same phenomenon. The argument is based partly on Quine’s indeterminacy of translation thesis: without pretheoretical discourse to supply the concepts explained by theories, there would be no way to understand what it means for competing theories to offer different explanations of the same phenomenon. On the other hand, there can be a supporting theory that is uniquely associated with a practice, even if it does not explain the practice itself. On the other hand, there can be a supporting theory that is uniquely associated with a practice, even if it does not explain the practice itself.

18. What is Design? Design is a passage from a functional description to a physical description of an artifact. Design is a passage from a functional description to a physical description of an artifact. That is, when the one begins with a description of what a thing is supposed to do and produces a physical description of a thing that does it, then one is designing. That is, when the one begins with a description of what a thing is supposed to do and produces a physical description of a thing that does it, then one is designing. A fundamental fact about design that complicates theoretical treatment is that design is a practice. A fundamental fact about design that complicates theoretical treatment is that design is a practice. Design theory must therefore organize our knowledge of design practice. Design theory must therefore organize our knowledge of design practice. But “knowledge of design practice” has two very different senses: It can refer to knowledge about the socio- psychological phenomenon of designing, or knowledge one must have in order to practice design. But “knowledge of design practice” has two very different senses: It can refer to knowledge about the socio- psychological phenomenon of designing, or knowledge one must have in order to practice design.

19. Design Theory When the phrase “design theory” is mentioned, what seems often to be meant is a socio-psychological theory of the designing phenomenon. This can be of two types: When the phrase “design theory” is mentioned, what seems often to be meant is a socio-psychological theory of the designing phenomenon. This can be of two types: One type investigates the process by which people actually generate designs. What steps do designers generally follow? How did they learn their craft? When several people produce a design, how do they interact? One can clearly build a theory around these questions. One type investigates the process by which people actually generate designs. What steps do designers generally follow? How did they learn their craft? When several people produce a design, how do they interact? One can clearly build a theory around these questions. But what would happen if people designed differently? What factors lead to good designs, where the criterion of “goodness” is defined in advance. Efforts to formulate “design procedure” or steps to follow when designing is hard to theorize. But what would happen if people designed differently? What factors lead to good designs, where the criterion of “goodness” is defined in advance. Efforts to formulate “design procedure” or steps to follow when designing is hard to theorize.

20. References P. R. Carlile, C. M. Christensen, “The Cycles of Theory Building in Management Research”, working paper, October 27,2004, Version 5.0. P. R. Carlile, C. M. Christensen, “The Cycles of Theory Building in Management Research”, working paper, October 27,2004, Version 5.0. John N. Hooker, “Is Design Theory Possible?”, Journal of Information Technology Theory and Application, JITTA, 6:2, 2004, pp. 73-83. John N. Hooker, “Is Design Theory Possible?”, Journal of Information Technology Theory and Application, JITTA, 6:2, 2004, pp. 73-83.