The Central Nervous System

The Central Nervous System
Ch 12

Cerebrum Diencephalon: Medulla oblongata Cerebellum Brain stem:
Thalamus Epithalamus Hypothalamus Pineal gland Brain stem: Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata Pituitary Cerebellum Spinal cord

Central Nervous System (CNS)
CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord Cephalization Evolutionary development of the rostral (anterior) portion of the CNS Increased number of neurons in the head Highest level is reached in the human brain

Embryonic Development
Neural plate forms from ectoderm Neural plate invaginates to form a neural groove and neural folds

The neural plate forms from surface ectoderm.
Head Neural plate Tail 1 The neural plate forms from surface ectoderm. Figure 12.1, step 1

Neural folds Neural groove
The neural plate invaginates, forming the neural groove, flanked by neural folds. 2 Figure 12.1, step 2

Neural groove fuses dorsally to form the neural tube Neural tube gives rise to the brain and spinal cord

Neural crest 3 Neural fold cells migrate to form the neural crest, which will form much of the PNS and many other structures. Figure 12.1, step 3

Head Surface ectoderm Neural tube Tail
The neural groove becomes the neural tube, which will form CNS structures. 4 Figure 12.1, step 4

Anterior end of the neural tube gives rise to three primary brain vesicles Prosencephalon—forebrain Mesencephalon—midbrain Rhombencephalon—hindbrain

(b) Primary brain vesicles
Neural tube (b) Primary brain vesicles Anterior (rostral) Prosencephalon (forebrain) Mesencephalon (midbrain) Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) Posterior (caudal) Figure 12.2a-b

Primary vesicles give rise to five secondary brain vesicles Telencephalon and diencephalon arise from the forebrain Mesencephalon remains undivided Metencephalon and myelencephalon arise from the hindbrain

Telencephalon  cerebrum (two hemispheres with cortex, white matter, and basal nuclei) Diencephalon  thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and retina

Mesencephalon  brain stem (midbrain) Metencephalon  brain stem (pons) and cerebellum Myelencephalon  brain stem (medulla oblongata) Central canal of the neural tube enlarges to form fluid-filled ventricles

(e) Adult neural canal regions (c) Secondary brain vesicles
(d) Adult brain structures Cerebrum: cerebral hemispheres (cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) Lateral ventricles Telencephalon Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus), retina Diencephalon Third ventricle Cerebral aqueduct Mesencephalon Brain stem: midbrain Metencephalon Brain stem: pons Fourth ventricle Cerebellum Brain stem: medulla oblongata Myelencephalon Spinal cord Central canal Figure 12.2c-e

Effect of Space Restriction on Brain Development
Midbrain flexure and cervical flexure cause forebrain to move toward the brain stem Cerebral hemispheres grow posteriorly and laterally Cerebral hemisphere surfaces crease and fold into convolutions

Anterior (rostral) Posterior (caudal) Metencephalon Mesencephalon
Midbrain Diencephalon Flexures Cervical Telencephalon Spinal cord Myelencephalon (a) Week 5 Figure 12.3a

Outline of diencephalon
Cerebral hemisphere Outline of diencephalon Midbrain Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata Spinal cord (b) Week 13 Figure 12.3b

Cerebral hemisphere Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata Spinal cord
(c) Week 26 Figure 12.3c

Coverings of the Brain- Meninges
skin skull dura mater arachnoid layer pia mater cerebral cortex

Menenges: Covers and protects CNS Protects blood vessels and encloses venus sinuses Contains CSF Forms partition within the skull

Ventricles of the Brain
Connected to one another and to the central canal of the spinal cord Lined by ependymal cells

Ventricles of the Brain
Contain cerebrospinal fluid Two C-shaped lateral ventricles in the cerebral hemispheres Third ventricle in the diencephalon Fourth ventricle in the hindbrain, dorsal to the pons, develops from the lumen of the neural tube

Cerebruspinal Fluid Brain Ventricles CSF Spinal Cord Rt. Ventricle
Lf. Ventricle Anterior View Saggital View

Lateral ventricle Septum pellucidum Anterior horn Posterior horn
Inferior horn Interventricular foramen Lateral aperture Median aperture Third ventricle Inferior horn Lateral aperture Cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle Central canal (a) Anterior view (b) Left lateral view Figure 12.5

Supplies brain with nutrition
CSF 150 ml in adult contains: glucose, proteins,lactic acid, urea, cations, anions, WBC Functions: Reduces wt. of brain by 97% Prevents head injury Supplies brain with nutrition Transports hormones along ventricular channels

Right lateral ventricle (deep to cut)
Superior sagittal sinus 4 Choroid plexus Arachnoid villus Interventricular foramen Subarachnoid space Arachnoid mater Meningeal dura mater Periosteal dura mater 1 Right lateral ventricle (deep to cut) Choroid plexus of fourth ventricle 3 Third ventricle CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of each ventricle. 1 Cerebral aqueduct Lateral aperture Fourth ventricle CSF flows through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the median and lateral apertures. Some CSF flows through the central canal of the spinal cord. 2 Median aperture 2 Central canal of spinal cord CSF flows through the subarachnoid space. 3 (a) CSF circulation CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villi. 4 Figure 12.26a

containing glucose, oxygen, vitamins, and ions (Na+, Cl–, Mg2+, etc.)
Ependymal cells Capillary Section of choroid plexus Connective tissue of pia mater Wastes and unnecessary solutes absorbed CSF forms as a filtrate containing glucose, oxygen, vitamins, and ions (Na+, Cl–, Mg2+, etc.) Cavity of ventricle (b) CSF formation by choroid plexuses Figure 12.26b

Blood-Brain Barrier Protects the brain from "foreign substances" in the blood that may injure the brain. Protects the brain from hormones and neurotransmitters in the rest of the body. Maintains a constant environment for the brain. The main function of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is to protect the brain from changes in the levels in the blood of ions, amino acids, peptides, and other substances. The barrier is located at the brain blood capillaries, which are unusual in two ways. Firstly, the cells which make up the walls of these vessels (the endothelium) are sealed together at their edges by tight junctions that form a key component of the barrier. These junctions prevent water-soluble substances in the blood from passing between the cells and therefore from freely entering the fluid environment of the brain cells. Secondly, these capillaries are enclosed by the flattened ‘end-feet’ of astrocytic cells (one type of glia), which also act as a partial, active, barrier. Thus the only way for water-soluble substances to cross the BBB is by passing directly through the walls of the cerebral capillaries, and because their cell membranes are made up of a lipid/protein bilayer, they also act as a major part of the BBB. In contrast, fat-soluble molecules, including those of oxygen and carbon dioxide, anaesthetics, and alcohol can pass straight through the lipids in the capillary walls and so gain access to all parts of the brain. Apart from these passive elements of the BBB there are also enzymes on the lining of the cerebral capillaries that destroy unwanted peptides and other small molecules in the blood as it flows through the brain. Finally, there is another barrier process that acts against lipid-soluble molecules, which may be toxic and can diffuse straight through capillary walls into the brain. In the capillary wall there are three classes of specialized ‘efflux pumps’ which bind to three broad classes of molecules and transport them back into the blood out of the brain. Diagram of a cerebral capillary enclosed in astrocyte end-feet. Characteristics of the blood-brain barrier are indicated: (1) tight junctions that seal the pathway between the capillary (endothelial) cells; (2) the lipid nature of the cell membranes of the capillary wall which makes it a barrier towater-soluble molecules; (3), (4), and (5) represent some of the carriers and ion channels; (6) the 'enzymatic barrier'that removes molecules from the blood; (7) the efflux pumps which extrude fat-soluble molecules that have crossed into the cells However, in order for nourishment to reach the brain, water-soluble compounds must cross the BBB, including the vital glucose for energy production and amino acids for protein synthesis. To achieve this transfer, brain vessels have evolved special carriers on both sides of the cells forming the capillary walls, which transport these substances from blood to brain, and also move waste products and other unwanted molecules in the opposite direction. The successful evolution of a complex brain depends on the development of the BBB. It exists in all vertebrates, and also in insects and the highly intelligent squid and octopus. In man the BBB is fully formed by the third month of gestation, and errors in this process can lead to defects such as spina bifida. Although the BBB is an obvious advantage in protecting the brain, it also restricts the entry from the blood of water-soluble drugs which are used to treat brain tumours or infections, such as the AIDS virus, which uses the brain as a sanctuary and ‘hides’ behind the BBB from body defence mechanisms. To overcome these problems drugs are designed to cross the BBB, by making them more fat soluble. But this also means that they might enter most cells in the body and be too toxic. Alternative approaches are to make drug molecules that can ‘ride on’ the natural transporter proteins in the cerebral capillaries, and so be more focused on the brain, or to use drugs that open the BBB. Since the brain is contained in a rigid, bony skull, its volume has to be kept constant. The BBB plays a key role in this process, by limiting the freedom of movement of water and salts from the blood into the extracellular fluid of the brain. Whereas in other body tissues extracellular fluid is formed by leakage from capillaries, the BBB in fact secretes brain extracellular fluid at a controlled rate and is thus critical in the maintenance of normal brain volume. If the barrier is made leaky by trauma or infection, water and salts cross into the brain, causing it to swell (cerebral oedema), which leads to raised intracranial pressure; this can be fatal. The blood-brain barrier is thus a key element in the normal functioning of the brain, and isolates it from disturbances in the composition of the fluids in the rest of the body.

Blood-Brain Barrier Composition
Continuous endothelium of capillary walls Basal lamina Feet of astrocytes Provide signal to endothelium for the formation of tight junctions The main function of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is to protect the brain from changes in the levels in the blood of ions, amino acids, peptides, and other substances. The barrier is located at the brain blood capillaries, which are unusual in two ways. Firstly, the cells which make up the walls of these vessels (the endothelium) are sealed together at their edges by tight junctions that form a key component of the barrier. These junctions prevent water-soluble substances in the blood from passing between the cells and therefore from freely entering the fluid environment of the brain cells. Secondly, these capillaries are enclosed by the flattened ‘end-feet’ of astrocytic cells (one type of glia), which also act as a partial, active, barrier. Thus the only way for water-soluble substances to cross the BBB is by passing directly through the walls of the cerebral capillaries, and because their cell membranes are made up of a lipid/protein bilayer, they also act as a major part of the BBB. In contrast, fat-soluble molecules, including those of oxygen and carbon dioxide, anaesthetics, and alcohol can pass straight through the lipids in the capillary walls and so gain access to all parts of the brain. Apart from these passive elements of the BBB there are also enzymes on the lining of the cerebral capillaries that destroy unwanted peptides and other small molecules in the blood as it flows through the brain. Finally, there is another barrier process that acts against lipid-soluble molecules, which may be toxic and can diffuse straight through capillary walls into the brain. In the capillary wall there are three classes of specialized ‘efflux pumps’ which bind to three broad classes of molecules and transport them back into the blood out of the brain. Diagram of a cerebral capillary enclosed in astrocyte end-feet. Characteristics of the blood-brain barrier are indicated: (1) tight junctions that seal the pathway between the capillary (endothelial) cells; (2) the lipid nature of the cell membranes of the capillary wall which makes it a barrier towater-soluble molecules; (3), (4), and (5) represent some of the carriers and ion channels; (6) the 'enzymatic barrier'that removes molecules from the blood; (7) the efflux pumps which extrude fat-soluble molecules that have crossed into the cells However, in order for nourishment to reach the brain, water-soluble compounds must cross the BBB, including the vital glucose for energy production and amino acids for protein synthesis. To achieve this transfer, brain vessels have evolved special carriers on both sides of the cells forming the capillary walls, which transport these substances from blood to brain, and also move waste products and other unwanted molecules in the opposite direction. The successful evolution of a complex brain depends on the development of the BBB. It exists in all vertebrates, and also in insects and the highly intelligent squid and octopus. In man the BBB is fully formed by the third month of gestation, and errors in this process can lead to defects such as spina bifida. Although the BBB is an obvious advantage in protecting the brain, it also restricts the entry from the blood of water-soluble drugs which are used to treat brain tumours or infections, such as the AIDS virus, which uses the brain as a sanctuary and ‘hides’ behind the BBB from body defence mechanisms. To overcome these problems drugs are designed to cross the BBB, by making them more fat soluble. But this also means that they might enter most cells in the body and be too toxic. Alternative approaches are to make drug molecules that can ‘ride on’ the natural transporter proteins in the cerebral capillaries, and so be more focused on the brain, or to use drugs that open the BBB. Since the brain is contained in a rigid, bony skull, its volume has to be kept constant. The BBB plays a key role in this process, by limiting the freedom of movement of water and salts from the blood into the extracellular fluid of the brain. Whereas in other body tissues extracellular fluid is formed by leakage from capillaries, the BBB in fact secretes brain extracellular fluid at a controlled rate and is thus critical in the maintenance of normal brain volume. If the barrier is made leaky by trauma or infection, water and salts cross into the brain, causing it to swell (cerebral oedema), which leads to raised intracranial pressure; this can be fatal. The blood-brain barrier is thus a key element in the normal functioning of the brain, and isolates it from disturbances in the composition of the fluids in the rest of the body.

(a) Astrocytes are the most abundant CNS neuroglia.
Capillary Neuron Astrocyte (a) Astrocytes are the most abundant CNS neuroglia. Figure 11.3a

Blood-Brain Barrier: Functions
Selective barrier Allows nutrients to move by facilitated diffusion Allows any fat-soluble substances to pass, including alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics Absent in some areas, hypothalamus, pitutary, pineal body and vomiting center

The BBB can be broken down by
Hypertension (high blood pressure): high blood pressure opens the BBB. Development: the BBB is not fully formed at birth. Hyperosmolitity: a high concentration of a substance in the blood can open the BBB. Microwaves: exposure to microwaves can open the BBB. Radiation: exposure to radiation can open the BBB. Infection: exposure to infectious agents can open the BBB. Trauma, Ischemia, Inflammation, Pressure: injury to the brain can open the BBB.

Cerebral Hemispheres Surface markings
Ridges (gyri), shallow grooves (sulci), and deep grooves (fissures) Five lobes Frontal Parietal Temporal Occipital Insula

Cerebral Hemispheres Surface markings Central sulcus
Separates the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe and the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe Longitudinal fissure Separates the two hemispheres Transverse cerebral fissure Separates the cerebrum and the cerebellum

Parieto-occipital sulcus (on medial surface of hemisphere)
Precentral gyrus Central sulcus Postcentral gyrus Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Parieto-occipital sulcus (on medial surface of hemisphere) Lateral sulcus Occipital lobe Temporal lobe Transverse cerebral fissure Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata Fissure Spinal cord (a deep sulcus) Gyrus Cortex (gray matter) Sulcus White matter (a) Figure 12.6a

Central sulcus Frontal lobe Gyri of insula Temporal lobe (pulled down)
Figure 12.6b

Anterior Longitudinal Frontal lobe fissure Cerebral veins and arteries
covered by arachnoid mater Parietal lobe Left cerebral hemisphere Right cerebral hemisphere Occipital lobe (c) Posterior Figure 12.6c

Left cerebral hemisphere Transverse cerebral fissure Brain stem
Cerebellum (d) Figure 12.6d

Cerebral Cortex Thin (2–4 mm) superficial layer of gray matter
40% of the mass of the brain Site of conscious mind: awareness, sensory perception, voluntary motor initiation, communication, memory storage, understanding Each hemisphere connects to contralateral side of the body There is lateralization of cortical function in the hemispheres

Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
The three types of functional areas are: Motor areas—control voluntary movement Sensory areas—conscious awareness of sensation Association areas—integrate diverse information Conscious behavior involves the entire cortex

Motor Areas Primary (somatic) motor cortex Premotor cortex
Broca’s area Frontal eye field

Sensory areas and related association areas Primary motor cortex
Motor areas Central sulcus Sensory areas and related association areas Primary motor cortex Primary somatosensory cortex Premotor cortex Somatic sensation Frontal eye field Somatosensory association cortex Broca’s area (outlined by dashes) Gustatory cortex (in insula) Taste Prefrontal cortex Working memory for spatial tasks Wernicke’s area (outlined by dashes) Executive area for task management Working memory for object-recall tasks Primary visual cortex Visual association area Vision Solving complex, multitask problems Auditory association area Hearing Primary auditory cortex (a) Lateral view, left cerebral hemisphere Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex Figure 12.8a

Primary Motor Cortex Large pyramidal cells of the precentral gyri
Long axons  pyramidal (corticospinal) tracts Allows conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements Motor homunculi: upside-down caricatures representing the motor innervation of body regions

Posterior Motor Motor map in precentral gyrus Anterior Toes Jaw Tongue Primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus) Swallowing Figure 12.9

Premotor Cortex Anterior to the precentral gyrus
Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills Coordinates simultaneous or sequential actions Involved in the planning of movements that depend on sensory feedback

Broca’s Area Anterior to the inferior region of the premotor area
Present in one hemisphere (usually the left) A motor speech area that directs muscles of the tongue Is active as one prepares to speak

Frontal Eye Field Anterior to the premotor cortex and superior to Broca’s area Controls voluntary eye movements

Max Min Hearing Seeing words Speaking words Generating words
Fig Max Hearing words Seeing words Min Speaking words Generating words

Sensory Areas Primary somatosensory cortex
Somatosensory association cortex Visual areas Auditory areas Olfactory cortex Gustatory cortex Visceral sensory area Vestibular cortex

Sensory areas and related association areas Primary motor cortex
Motor areas Central sulcus Sensory areas and related association areas Primary motor cortex Primary somatosensory cortex Premotor cortex Somatic sensation Frontal eye field Somatosensory association cortex Broca’s area (outlined by dashes) Gustatory cortex (in insula) Taste Prefrontal cortex Working memory for spatial tasks Wernicke’s area (outlined by dashes) Executive area for task management Working memory for object-recall tasks Primary visual cortex Visual association area Vision Solving complex, multitask problems Auditory association area Hearing Primary auditory cortex (a) Lateral view, left cerebral hemisphere Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex Figure 12.8a

Motor, Sensory & Association Cortex
Functional Regions of the Cerebrum

Primary Somatosensory Cortex
In the postcentral gyri Receives sensory information from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints Capable of spatial discrimination: identification of body region being stimulated

Posterior Sensory Anterior Sensory map in postcentral gyrus Genitals Primary somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus) Intra- abdominal Figure 12.9

Somatosensory Association Cortex
Posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex Integrates sensory input from primary somatosensory cortex Determines size, texture, and relationship of parts of objects being felt

Visual Areas Primary visual (striate) cortex
Extreme posterior tip of the occipital lobe Most of it is buried in the calcarine sulcus Receives visual information from the retinas

Visual Areas Visual association area
Surrounds the primary visual cortex Uses past visual experiences to interpret visual stimuli (e.g., color, form, and movement) Complex processing involves entire posterior half of the hemispheres

Auditory Areas Primary auditory cortex Auditory association area
Superior margin of the temporal lobes Interprets information from inner ear as pitch, loudness, and location Auditory association area Located posterior to the primary auditory cortex Stores memories of sounds and permits perception of sounds

OIfactory Cortex Medial aspect of temporal lobes (in piriform lobes)
Part of the primitive rhinencephalon, along with the olfactory bulbs and tracts (Remainder of the rhinencephalon in humans is part of the limbic system) Region of conscious awareness of odors

Gustatory Cortex In the insula Involved in the perception of taste

Visceral Sensory Area Posterior to gustatory cortex
Conscious perception of visceral sensations, e.g., upset stomach or full bladder

Vestibular Cortex Posterior part of the insula and adjacent parietal cortex Responsible for conscious awareness of balance (position of the head in space)

Primary somatosensory cortex
Cingulate gyrus Primary motor cortex Premotor cortex Central sulcus Corpus callosum Primary somatosensory cortex Frontal eye field Parietal lobe Somatosensory association cortex Prefrontal cortex Parieto-occipital sulcus Occipital lobe Processes emotions related to personal and social interactions Visual association area Orbitofrontal cortex Olfactory bulb Olfactory tract Primary visual cortex Fornix Temporal lobe Uncus Calcarine sulcus Primary olfactory cortex Parahippocampal gyrus (b) Parasagittal view, right hemisphere Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex Figure 12.8b

Multimodal Association Areas
Receive inputs from multiple sensory areas Send outputs to multiple areas, including the premotor cortex Allow us to give meaning to information received, store it as memory, compare it to previous experience, and decide on action to take

Multimodal Association Areas
Three parts Anterior association area (prefrontal cortex) Posterior association area Limbic association area

Anterior Association Area (Prefrontal Cortex)
Most complicated cortical region Involved with intellect, cognition, recall, and personality Contains working memory needed for judgment, reasoning, persistence, and conscience Development depends on feedback from social environment

Posterior Association Area
Large region in temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes Plays a role in recognizing patterns and faces and localizing us in space Involved in understanding written and spoken language (Wernicke’s area)

Limbic Association Area
Part of the limbic system Provides emotional impact that helps establish memories

The Limbic System The Limbic System The Limbic System

cerebrum corpus callosum thalamus hypothalamus pituitary cerebellum
Pineal gland hypothalamus mid brain pituitary Major Regions of the Brain pons cerebellum medulla oblongata spinal cord

Cerebrum Involved with higher brain functions.
Processes sensory information. Initiates motor functions. Integrates information.

Cerebrum Cross-Section
cerebral cortex corpus callosum white matter thalamus basal ganglia hypothalamus ventricles

Right-Left Specialization of the Cerebrum
left side language development mathematical & learning capabilities sequential thought processes right side visual spatial skills musical and artistic activities intuitive abilities

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Records electrical activity that accompanies brain function Measures electrical potential differences between various cortical areas

(a) Scalp electrodes are used to record brain wave activity (EEG).
Figure 12.20a

Brain Waves Patterns of neuronal electrical activity
Generated by synaptic activity in the cortex Each person’s brain waves are unique Can be grouped into four classes based on frequency measured as Hertz (Hz)

Types of Brain Waves Alpha waves: 8-13 Hz
awake or resting w/eyes closed disappear during sleep Beta Waves: 14-30 Hz sensory input and mental activity

Brain Waves Theta Waves: 4-7 Hz emotional stress Delta Waves: 1-5 Hz
deep sleep in adults normal in awake infants

Alpha waves—awake but relaxed
1-second interval Alpha waves—awake but relaxed Beta waves—awake, alert Theta waves—common in children Delta waves—deep sleep (b) Brain waves shown in EEGs fall into four general classes. Figure 12.20b

Brain Waves: State of the Brain
Change with age, sensory stimuli, brain disease, and the chemical state of the body EEGs used to diagnose and localize brain lesions, tumors, infarcts, infections, abscesses, and epileptic lesions A flat EEG (no electrical activity) is clinical evidence of death

Epilepsy A victim of epilepsy may lose consciousness, fall stiffly, and have uncontrollable jerking Epilepsy is not associated with intellectual impairments Epilepsy occurs in 1% of the population

Epileptic Seizures Absence seizures, or petit mal
Mild seizures seen in young children where the expression goes blank Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures Victim loses consciousness, bones are often broken due to intense contractions, may experience loss of bowel and bladder control, and severe biting of the tongue

Control of Epilepsy Anticonvulsive drugs
Vagus nerve stimulators implanted under the skin of the chest can keep electrical activity of the brain from becoming chaotic Split brain

Diencephalon Thalamus Epithalamus: - pineal - habenular nuclei
Hypothalamus Subthalamus - subthalamic nuclei

Diencephalon hypothalamus thalamus pituitary

Diencephalon

Thalamus Relay center for sensory tracts from the spinal cord to the cerebrum. Contains centers for sensation of pain, temperature, and touch. Involved with emotions and alerting or arousal mechanisms.

Thalamus

The Reticular Formation

Epithalamus Pineal gland & habenular nuclei

Subthalamus Subthalamic nuclei Portions of red nucleus
Portions of substantia nigra (dopamine) Red nucleus Substantia nigra Subthalamic nuclei Substantia nigra

Hypothalamus Regulates:
autonomic control center- blood pressure, rate and force of heart contraction, center for emotional response and behavior body temperature water balance and thirst sleep/wake cycles appetite sexual arousal control of endocrine functioning: Acts on the pituitary gland through the release of neurosecretions.

Hypothalamus

Pituitary

Midbrain Cerebellar peduncles Tectum Superior colliculi
Inferior colliculi Substantia nigra Red nuclei thalamus Posterior Tectum Red nucleus Substantia nigra Anterior

Midbrain Contains ascending and descending tracts to the cerebrum and thalamus. Reflex center for eye muscles. Also involved with processing visual and auditory information (connects head movements with visual and auditory stimuli).

Pons Connects the two halves of the cerebellum. Regulates breathing.
Associated w/ cranial nerves V, VI, VII, & VIII

Medulla Oblongata Composed of nerve tracts decusate
An extension of the spinal cord Almost all of the cranial nerves arise from this region (VIII, IX, X, XI, XII)

Medulla Oblongata

Medulla Oblongata Contains control centers for many subconscious activities Respiratory rate Heart rate Arteriole constriction Swallowing Hiccupping Coughing Sneezing

The Cerebellum 11% of brain mass Dorsal to the pons and medulla
Controls fine movement coordination Balance and equilibrium Muscle tone

Anatomy of the Cerebellum
Two hemispheres connected by vermis Each hemisphere has three lobes Anterior, posterior, and flocculonodular Folia—transversely oriented gyri Arbor vitae—distinctive treelike pattern of the cerebellar white matter

Anterior lobe Cerebellar cortex Arbor vitae Cerebellar peduncles
Posterior lobe • Superior • Middle Choroid plexus of fourth ventricle • Inferior Medulla oblongata Flocculonodular lobe (b) Figure 12.17b

Importance of Sleep

Sleep Sleep is a specialized state that serves a variety of important functions including: Conservation of energy Repair and restoration Learning and memory consolidation

Importance of Sleep Slow-wave sleep (NREM stages 3 and 4) is presumed to be the restorative stage People deprived of REM sleep become moody and depressed Daily sleep requirements decline with age Stage 4 sleep declines steadily and may disappear after age 60

Physiological Changes During Sleep
Metabolic rate decreases Heart rate decreases Gastric acid secretion decreased GH increased Prolactin increased later half Urinary output decreased Gut motility decreased

Physiological Changes During Sleep
During REM sleep: Activity increases in the pons (triggers the onset of REM sleep), limbic system, parietal cortex and temporal cortex. Activity decreases in the primary visual cortex, the motor cortex, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Periods of REM sleep, in contrast, are characterized by increases in blood pressure, heart rate, and metabolism to levels almost as high as those found in the awake state. In addition, REM sleep, as the name implies, is characterized by rapid, rolling eye movements, paralysis of large muscles, and the twitching of fingers and toes. Penile erection also occurs during REM sleep, a fact that is clinically important in determining whether a complaint of impotence has a physiological or psychological basis. Interestingly, REM sleep is found only in mammals (and juvenile birds) Despite the similar EEG recordings obtained in REM sleep and wakefulness, the two conditions are clearly not equivalent brain states. Unlike wakefulness, REM sleep is characterized by dreaming, visual hallucinations, increased emotion, lack of self-reflection, and a lack of volitional control. Since most muscles are inactive during REM sleep, the motor responses to dreams are relatively minor (sleepwalking actually occurs during non-REM sleep and is not accompanied or motivated by dreams). This relativeparalysis arises from increased activity in GABAergic neurons in the pontine reticular formation that contact lower motor neuroncircuitry in the spinal cord. Similarly, activity of descending inhibitory projections from the pons to the dorsal column nuclei causes a diminished response to somatic sensory stimuli during REM sleep. Taken together, these observations have led to the aphorism that non-REM sleep is characterized by an inactive brain in an active body, whereas REM sleep is characterized by an active brain in an inactive body.

Stages of Sleep

Sleep Disorders Narcolepsy Insomnia SIDS Sleep apnea
Lapsing abruptly into sleep from the awake state Insomnia Chronic inability to obtain the amount or quality of sleep needed SIDS ￪ in males, sleeping on belly, 2nd hand smoke Sleep apnea Temporary cessation of breathing during sleep

Tips for Better Sleep Develop a consistent sleep/wake schedule.
Strive for 8 hours of sleep a night Avoid daytime napping Avoid substances with caffeine, nicotine, or alcohol before going to bed. Exercise earlier in the day.

Tips for Better Sleep Don’t eat a heavy meal before going to bed.
Control your room temperature Relax before going to bed

Learning & Memory Stimulus Sensory organs perception Sensory Memory
(millisecond-1) attention Short-Term Memory Working Memory (< 1 minute) forgetting repetition Long-Term Memory ( days, months, years)

Learning & Memory Sensory Memory:
A sensory memory exists for each sensory channel: iconic memory for visual stimuli echoic memory for aural stimuli haptic memory for touch Information sensory memory short-term memory by attention, thereby filtering the stimuli to only those which are of interest at a given time.

Learning & Memory QUIZ NEXT SLIDE Short-term Memory:
acts as a scratch-pad for temporary recall of the information under process can contain at any one time seven, plus or minus two, "chunks" of information lasts around twenty seconds. QUIZ NEXT SLIDE

Short-term Memory Quiz (30 sec)
eggs drawing rock apple focus mission favor ice brain flag trial partner house life chair

Learning & Memory Long-term Memory:
intended for storage of information over a long time. Short-termlong-term (rehearsal) Little decay Storage Deletion- decay and interference Retrieval-recall and recognition

Learning & Memory Long-term Memory: Why we forget:
fading (trace decay) over time interference (overlaying new information over the old) lack of retrieval cues.

Learning & Memory Encoding in Long-term Memory: Organizing Practicing
Spacing Making meaning Emotionally engaging

The Spinal Cord Cervical spinal nerves Thoracic spinal nerves
Conus medullaris Lumbar spinal nerves Cauda equina Sacral spinal nerves

Lumbar Tap Collect CSF for testing
Cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) is a clear fluid that circulates in the space surrounding the spinal cord and brain. CSF protects the brain and spinal cord from injury by acting like a liquid cushion. CSF is usually obtained through a lumbar puncture (spinal tap). During the procedure, a needle is inserted usually between the 3rd and 4th lumbar vertebrae and the CSF fluid is collected for testing

The Spinal Cord vertebra spinal cord spinal nerve

Spinal Nerves

Spinal Cord

Nerve Pathways into the Spinal Cord
sensory pathway motor pathway

Somatic Sensory Pathway

Ascending Spinal Cord Tract

2nd order neuron- to thalamus or cerebellum
Ascending Spinal Cord Tract Conducts sensory impulses upward through 3 successive chains of neurons 1st order neuron-cutaneous receptors of skin and proprioceptors  spinal cord or brain stem 2nd order neuron- to thalamus or cerebellum 3rd order neuron- to somatosensory cortex of cerebrum

Descending Spinal Cord Tract

Traumatic Brain Injuries
Concussion Contusion Subdural or subarachnoid hemorrhage Contrecoup injury Punch Drunk Syndrome

Ischemia Thrombus Embolism Arteriosclerosis Stroke
Cerebrovascular Accidents (CVAs) Ischemia Thrombus Embolism Arteriosclerosis Stroke

Stroke

Degenerative brain diseases
Schizophrenia Parkinson’s Alzheimer’s Down’s Huntington’s Chorea MS Epilepsy

Schizophrenia Too much dopamine and glutamate

Parkinson’s Disease

Parkinson’s disease Substantia nigra in midbrain Dopamine
- affects brain processes controlling: movement balance walking emotional response ability to experience pleasure and pain.

Parkinson’s disease Causes: Genetics
Environmental chemicals (e.g., PCBs) Thyroid disorders Repeated head injury Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease: resting tremor on one side of the body generalized slowness of movement (bradykinesia) stiffness of limbs (rigidity) gait or balance problems (postural dysfunction).

Parkinson’s disease F-Dopa deficiency

Parkinson’s disease Treatments: L-dopa Deprenyl
Deep brain stimulation w/electrodes Fetal tissue

Parkinson’s Disease Substantia nigra

Alzheimer’s Disease Results in dementia 5-15% over age 65
Associated with : Acetylcholine shortage Amyloid plaques Neurofibullary tangles

Normal Alzheimer’s

Normal Alzheimer’s Extreme shrinkage of cortex Cerebral cortex
Severely enlarged ventricles Extreme shrinkage of hippocampus Hippocampus Entorhinal cortex

Normal Alzheimer’s

Down’s syndrome

Down’s syndrome Problems in using spatial and contextual to form new memories: a function of the hippocampus Effects transmission of neurons between the locus coeruleus and hippocampus

Huntington’s Disease Fatal hereditary disorder Onset at ~40 years
Fatal w/in 15 years Dance-like movement Associated with : Huntingtin protein

Huntington’s Disease Mutated Huntingtin protein toxicity
Huntington's Disease (HD) is a brain disorder that affects a person's ability to think, talk, and move. The disease destroys cells in the basal ganglia, the part of the brain that controls movement, emotion, and cognitive ability. HD is caused by a mutation in a gene on chromosome 4. The job of its protein product, huntingtin, is to direct the delivery of small packages (vesicles containing important molecules) to the outside of the cell. How do people get Huntington's Disease? Huntington's disease is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern. This means that everyone who inherits the faulty gene will eventually get the disease. A parent with a mutation in the HD gene has a 50 percent chance of passing on the disease to their children. The symptoms of Huntington's disease are caused by cell death in specific regions of the brain. Patients who have HD are born with a mutated version of the protein huntingtin (Htt), which is thought to cause these toxic effects. What are the symptoms of Huntington's Disease? Huntington's disease affects the part of the brain that controls thinking, emotion, and movement. Most people who have the disease start to see symptoms between the ages of 30 and 50 (but symptoms can appear earlier or later in life). The disease gets worse over time. Some of the symptoms include: poor memory, depression and/or mood swings, lack of coordination, twitching or other uncontrolled movements, and difficulty walking, speaking, and/or swallowing. In the late stages of the disease, a person will need help doing even simple tasks, such as getting dressed. How do doctors diagnose Huntington's Disease? During pregnancy a woman can find out if her baby will have the disease with two tests: taking a sample of fluid from around the fetus (amniocentesis), or by taking a sample of fetal cells from the placenta (chorionic villus sampling (CVS)). After the child is born, doctors can identify the disease by first doing a series of neurological and psychological tests. A genetic test can then confirm the diagnosis by determining if the person indeed has inherited the HD gene mutation (an expansion of the CAG triplet). However, the test cannot tell at what age a person will begin to get sick. How is Huntington's Disease treated? Treatments do not slow the progression of the disease, but they can help make the patient more comfortable. Mutated Huntingtin protein toxicity

Epilepsy

INQUIRY What layer of tissue adheres most tightly to the brain? CSF stands for What does it do? What does the thalamus do? What is the cause of MS? Where is dark matter located in the spinal cord? A thrombus that moves to a new site is called ----.Describe punch drunk syndrome What brain wave is present with resting and eyes closed?

The Central Nervous System

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